Supporting practitioners in school-based evaluations of autism spectrum disorders

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have vastly different educational needs. Although some students with ASD may perform well across subjects within the general education classroom, other students with ASD may need more individualized support outside of the classroom. Historically, ASD assessments in schools have primarily focused on the measurement of cornerstone behaviors of ASD such as deficits in social communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors while underestimating the focus of academic skills even though both factors are required in the evaluation process and for an eligibility classification. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of academic assessment practices in the schools by highlighting best practices in ASD evaluation, outlining ASD academic profiles and how to identify academic skill deficits, and reviewing the available literature that comes from different formal- and function-based assessment practices that are commonly used in schools today. The authors also discuss how formal- and function-based assessments both serve a purpose and are recommended to be used in conjunction with one another to best demonstrate a student's academic profile. Practitioners are ultimately encouraged to use a multi-informant, multi-modal approach when it comes to psychoeducational evaluations for individuals with ASD as it is evident that an individualized approach is essential due to the discrepancy of academic profiles related to this disability category as well as understanding that no measure is a perfect representation of any one skill.     

A Validity Framework for Evaluating the Technical Quality of Alternate Assessments

This article presents findings from two projects designed to improve evaluations of technical quality of alternate assessments for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities. We argue that assessment technical documents should allow for the evaluation of the construct validity of the alternate assessments following the traditions of Cronbach (1971) , Messick (1989, 1995) , Linn, Baker, and Dunbar (1991) , and Shepard (1993) . The projects used the work of Knowing What Students Know ( Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001 ) to structure and focus the collection and evaluation of assessment information. The heuristic of the assessment triangle ( Pellegrino et al., 2001 ) was particularly useful in emphasizing that the validity evaluation needs to consider the logical connections among the characteristics of the students tested and how they develop domain proficiency (the cognition vertex), the nature of the assessment (the observation vertex), and the ways in which the assessment results are interpreted (the interpretation vertex). This project has shown that in addition to designing more valid assessments, the growing body of knowledge about the psychology of achievement testing can be useful for structuring evaluations of technical quality.     

A Conceptual Framework for Assessment Literacy: Opportunities for Physical Education Teacher Education

ABSTRACT

Although more nuanced understandings of assessment have been proposed in the physical education literature, assessment practices remain relatively underdeveloped, and when used, tend to focus on traditional, summative evaluations of learning. However, physical education teacher education programs can be used as an intervention to help pre-service teachers develop assessment knowledge and skill. Toward this end, the purpose of this article is to propose an evidence-based framework for helping pre-service teachers develop assessment literacy that is rooted in occupational socialization theory. The framework provides a four-phase approach to integrating assessment into teacher education, and includes suggestions for how physical education teacher educators can progressively help build pre-service teachers’ assessment knowledge in line with the focus given to instruction and planning. These suggestions acknowledge the technical and sociocultural aspects of learning to use assessment. Implications are discussed along with the need to help graduating pre-service teachers transfer lessons learned into the workplace.     

Reading assessments for students with ASD: a survey of summative reading assessments used in special educational schools in the UK

Schools have an obligation to assess the literacy skills of their students, and the provision of reading instruction to students includes the ability to measure progress in this area. However, the design of reading tests includes the ability not only to read words, but also the ability to verbalise them. This presents a particular challenge for practitioners working with students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who can be nonverbal in many cases. How this issue is generally overcome is currently unknown. A survey was developed, in the form of an online multiple‐choice questionnaire, in order to determine which tests are currently being used in the UK to assess the reading abilities of nonverbal students, and to examine the opinions of the education practitioners who use them, in relation to their suitability. Using the schools web directory, e‐mail invitations were sent to 1,050 special educational needs schools across the UK, and 70 schools responded to the invitation. Respondents suggested that the majority of practitioners hold little faith in the ability of current reading assessments to provide an accurate picture of reading ability for students with ASD, and this holds particularly true for nonverbal pupils with ASD. One purpose of education assessment is to establish a baseline of students’ ability in order to plan for lifelong learning and achievement. If there is an inability on the part of schools accurately to assess the reading abilities of nonverbal students with ASD, then it would be fair to assume that this could have a negative impact on the provision of learning opportunities for this population.     

Career guidance,career assessment,and consultancy

Summary Although career guidance activities can positively influence students' career development, the effectiveness of such activities is often impaired because they attempt to provide the same services to all students at the same time. Programs typically do not consider either students' differential developmental patterns or the fact that many students have particular needs due to learning, physical, or emotional handicaps. Therefore, a primary focus of refining programs must be the individualization of services to meet a wide variety of student needs.Referral to career assessment or to professionals trained in career assessment and consultation is a valuable option open to school counselors who have neither the time nor the specialized training to conduct such assessments themselves. Career assessment centers offer comprehensive assessment services, including both more traditional assessments as well as innovative activities. Using a consultation paradigm, the school counselor and career assessment officer can better provide comprehensive, individualized assessment and counseling tailored to the specific needs of students, regardless of their handicaps and their different levels of developmental readiness     

Autism spectrum disorder assessment and evaluation research in 10 school psychology journals from 2007 to 2017

School psychologists are increasingly engaged in service provisions for students eligible for special education services under the eligibility category of autism, including conducting school‐based assessments and evaluations. Evaluations occur for a variety of reasons such as special education eligibility decision‐making, treatment and intervention planning, and progress monitoring. Publications in school psychology journals emphasizing autism spectrum disorder (ASD) assessment and evaluation are vital to quality training and practitioner utilization of quality practices. In the current study, researchers conducted a systematic review of publicaftions in 10 school psychology journals from 2007 to 2017 to assess the current state of ASD assessment and evaluation research in the field of school psychology. Implications for researchers, trainers, and practitioners are discussed.     

Quality of Reciprocated Friendships of Students with Special Educational Needs in Mainstream Seventh Grade

This study focuses on companionship, intimacy, and support of reciprocated friendships of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), students with motor and/or sensory disabilities, and typically developing students with their classmates at the start of mainstream secondary school. The study included 1379 typically developing students, 65 students with ASD, and 50 students with motor and/or sensory disabilities of 100 different classes in 56 schools. Sociometric techniques were used. No differences were found between companionship and support of the reciprocated friendships of the three groups. Students with ASD did report significantly less intimacy in their friendships than typically developing students did. The number of friends was not related to companionship or intimacy, but was positively associated with support of the students' reciprocated friendships. Furthermore, perceptions of shared friendship quality did not differ among students with ASD, students with motor and/or sensory disabilities, and their typically developing friends. Future research is needed to tap into the predictors and consequences of reciprocated friendships of students with special education needs in mainstream classes.     

The impact of content area focus on the effectiveness of a web‐based simulation

This paper describes an assessment of a web‐based interview simulation designed to teach empathetic helping skills. The system includes an animated character acting as a client and responses designed to recreate a simulated role‐play, a common assessment method used for teaching these skills. The purpose of this study was to determine whether learning gains found in previous evaluations would transfer to students needing similar skill sets but in different areas of study. Findings indicate a positive trend in learning gains across both areas of study (human services and counselling) with no significant differences in skill acquisition. Developers of the system conclude that the system is effective in the general training of empathetic helping skills regardless of the students' area of study.     

A design model: the Autism Spectrum Disorder Classroom Design Kit

Architects and designers have a responsibility to provide an inclusive built environment. However, for those with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the built environment can be a frightening and confusing place, difficult to negotiate and tolerate. The challenge of integrating more fully into society is denied by an alienating built environment. For ASD pupils in a poorly designed school, their environment can distance them from learning. Instead, if more at ease in their surroundings, in an ASD‐friendly environment, the ASD pupil stands a greater chance of doing better. However, a difficulty exists in that most architects are not knowledgeable in designing for those with ASD. Any available design guidelines for architects tend, because of the inherent difficulties associated with a spectrum, to be general in their information. Therefore, in order to provide an ASD‐friendly learning environment, there is a need to ensure that teachers, as the experts, can most clearly and effectively impart their knowledge and requirements to architects. This article, written by Keith McAllister and Barry Maguire, both from Queen's University Belfast, sets out the challenges and difficulties inherent in the design process when designing for those with ASD. It then sets out an alternative strategy to the usual method of drawing‐centric dialogue between teacher and architect by using models instead as a basis for a more common language. An ASD Classroom Design Kit was designed and developed by architecture students at Queen's University Belfast. It was then used by ASD teaching staff from the Southern Education and Library Board in Northern Ireland as a case study to trial its effectiveness. This article outlines how the study was carried out before concluding with reflections by both teaching staff and architect on using the ASD Classroom Design Kit. It is hoped, firstly, that this article will highlight the need for better dialogue between expert and architect when considering ASD and the built environment and, secondly, that it may encourage others to consider using models to convey their ideas and knowledge when designing, not just for ASD, but for other special educational needs and disabilities.     

Central Coherence Theory and the interpretation of picture materials: toward an assessment of autistic spectrum disorder

Central Coherence Theory ( Frith, 1989 ; Happe, 1994a ) may account for the piecemeal style of information processing characteristic of people with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). This style of processing was observed during language and communication assessments of pupils with ASD. A consistent pattern in the types of these responses emerged, such that it was possible to devise a framework to categorise them.
This article investigates the responses of two groups of eight pupils matched on the basis of gender and verbal ability: i) pupils with a diagnosis of ASD, and ii) pupils without identified difficulties. They were presented with a range of picture materials and their responses were placed within a framework of seven response categories. It was felt that the types of errors made by the two groups differed both quantitatively and qualitatively, and that the type and extent of the errors made by the pupils with ASD were largely attributable to the presence of weak central coherence.
Despite the presence of some limitations in the way the investigation was conducted, it was concluded that these methods might contribute toward the assessment and differential diagnosis of ASD.     

Parent–teacher problem solving about concerns in children with autism spectrum disorder: The role of income and race

Problem solving between parents and teachers is critical to maximizing student outcomes. The current study examined the associations among the different components of problem solving, as well as the relationship between various characteristics and problem solving in parents and teachers of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 18 teachers and 39 parents of children with ASD. Parents and teachers completed a demographic survey, phone interview, and dyad observation. Results indicated that parent and teacher problem solving strategies were correlated with each other. Lower‐income parents and parents interacting with White teachers displayed less problem solving. Findings suggest that school‐based service delivery models to improve problem solving should consider both skill development, as well as the sociodemographic characteristics that parents and teachers bring to their interactions.     

A comparison of parent and professional perceptions of children with autism spectrum disorder in Portugal

Improving early intervention in Portugal for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) requires parents and professionals to collaborate in assessing and planning intervention programmes. This article analyses parental and professional assessments of children with ASD, in the dimensions of social communication, repetitive behaviours and restricted interests, and sensory processing. The study presents contrasting perspectives from professionals and parents from a range of socio‐academic backgrounds. The sample consists of 136 Portuguese children (aged three to six years old) with ASD and involves children, parents and professionals from across the country. All children, at the time, were in preschool and receiving early special education intervention. Parents and professionals used the Assessment Scale for Children with ASD to complete the assessments. The results show that parents rate children's development and learning more positively compared to professionals; and that this difference is more significant in the field of social communication. Further, parents with higher academic qualifications showed statistically significant differences in comparison with professionals in the social communication dimension. These findings are discussed in relation to the literature and some suggestions are made regarding certain practices related to intervention in early childhood.     

A web of achieving in physical education: Goals,interest, outside-school activity and learning

Achievement goals and interests are recognized as primary motivators for learning in physical education. The study examined the dynamics of the motivators as associated with organized outside-school physical activity experiences and learning outcomes. Data of achievement goals, personal interest, learning outcomes, and outside-school experiences were gathered from students (N=104) randomly selected from two middle schools. The correlation analysis revealed a complex relationship among the motivators and learning outcomes. The MANOVA showed that the students participating in organized outside-school physical activities had a stronger ego-goal orientation and were more physically active in learning. Their knowledge and skill assessment outcomes did not differ from other students. The findings suggest that participation in outside-school programs may result in an active engagement, but may not lead to a paralleled learning achievement. These findings depicted a complex and dynamic web of relationships between the motivators and learning outcomes that needs to be addressed in future research.     

Assessing ‘inexperienced’ students' ability to self‐assess: exploring links with learning style and academic personal control

The study sought to establish the level of students' self‐assessment skill—particularly inexperienced students—and to examine the relationship between self‐assessment skill and learning style, student perceptions of academic locus of control and academic self‐efficacy. Students were asked to evaluate and provide estimated marks for their own work, were which compared with tutors' actual marks. Students also completed measures of learning style, academic locus control and academic self‐efficacy. Comparisons of student estimated and tutor marks indicated a good level of self‐assessment skill in the majority of students. A significant minority of students did however fail to exhibit such skills. There was also some evidence of a tendency for students to underestimate their performance. While both strategic and deep approaches to learning were shown to be positively correlated with tutor mark, only surface approach was negatively correlated with students' estimated mark, suggesting that surface learners are inclined to provide lower evaluations of their own performance. Deep approach was also correlated with accuracy of student self‐assessment skill, suggesting that deep learning is associated with self‐assessment competency. No clear or convincing associations between self‐assessment skill and perceptions of academic locus of control or academic self‐efficacy were identified. Findings suggest that while self‐assessment skill undoubtedly develops, becoming more effective during students' academic career, inexperienced students do have the capacity for self‐evaluation and should therefore be included in self‐assessment activities. In the light of findings related to learning style and the heterogeneous nature of student groups, student monitoring and skill development are proposed in order to allow the integration of self‐assessment into the learning and assessment process.     

Outcomes of Home-Support Consultation on the Maintenance of Bicycle-Riding Skills for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Bicycle riding is a functional motor skill that increases physical activity opportunities, social interaction, and independence. However, bicycle riding is difficult for youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to learn. This study examined the effectiveness of home-support consultation (HSC) on increasing the maintenance of independent bicycle riding following initial skill acquisition. Fifty-one youth with a confirmed ASD diagnosis learned to ride a two-wheeled bicycle during a training camp. Twenty-nine riders enrolled in a HSC intervention to promote distributed practice of the learned skill. The control cohort (N = 22) was exempt from the HSC intervention. One year following initial skill acquisition, 62.07% of the HSC cohort compared to 36.36% of the control cohort still reportedly displayed the skill. Within the HSC cohort, riders who reported at least 8 weeks of practice following acquisition on average maintained the skill. Implications of home consultation are discussed.     

Interactive Dynamic Assessment with Children Learning EFL in Kindergarten

This paper reports on a study of interactive dynamic assessment undertaken by children learning English listening and speaking as a Foreign Language in a kindergarten. It investigates how an interactive dynamic assessment could be designed to assess young English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners, what information such an interactive dynamic assessment may generate about the language program and the participating children, and how such information may promote children’s EFL learning. Instead of being context-independent and solely form-focused, this interactive dynamic assessment is contextualised within an English intervention program and incorporated with a pre-formulated set of supportive mediations for the participating children. The study shows this interactive dynamic assessment differs from traditional non-dynamic assessments in that it includes the assessor’s mediation and thereby generates the information about the participating children’s needs for and potential responses to mediation. It also demonstrates the potential of an interactive dynamic assessment in promoting children’s EFL learning and supporting teaching EFL.     

Intellectually gifted students with possible characteristics of ASD: a multiple case study of psycho-educational assessment practices

The Strengths and Weaknesses Heuristic (S&W Heuristic) was constructed in order to reduce biased assessments of students with (suspicion of) Intellectual Giftedness in co-occurrence with Autism Spectrum Disorder (IG + ASD) and to establish a well-founded interconnection between assessment data and intervention indications. The current study is the second in the validation process of the S&W Heuristic. An in-depth analysis of three assessment dossiers of Dutch IG-students with possible characteristics of ASD is focused upon. The core question is whether the S&W Heuristic is of added value to diminish bias in any direction and increase systematicity. The results indicate that bias, mainly directed at Strengths, as well as unsystematicity were present in different stages of two assessment dossiers. The conclusion is that the S&W Heuristic seems to pave the way for systematicity and less bias in assessment processes of students with (suspicion of) IG + ASD.     

Identifying Canadian teacher candidates' needs for training in the use of inclusive classroom assessment

To identify teacher candidates' needs for training in inclusive classroom assessment, the present study investigated teacher candidates' beliefs about inclusive classroom assessments for all students educated in regular classrooms, including those with special needs and English language learners. An innovative theoretical assessment model, consisting of four concepts of assessment for, as, of learning as well as accommodations and modifications, was built to compare with questionnaire responses from a group of Canadian teacher candidates (n?=?295). Our data yielded five factors: (1) beliefs about accommodations and modifications for students with diverse needs (ACC), (2) assessment of learning, (3) assessment as learning, (4) misconceptions of inclusive assessment, and (5) negative beliefs about assessment for learning (NAFL). Contrary to expectations, assessment concepts are not fully interrelated with each other in teacher candidates' belief systems. In addition, participating teacher candidates may have some misconceptions about inclusive assessments given that they possessed positive beliefs towards them. The implications for teacher education programmes and professional development were also discussed in this study.     

Mothers’ Depressive State ‘Distorts’ the Ratings of Depression they give for their Sons with an Autism Spectrum Disorder

Depression is highly prevalent in children who have an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), potentially confounding accurate diagnosis and treatment planning. Although information about the depressive status of a child is often collected from parents, there is evidence of distortion in parental assessments of their offspring’s depression. This distortion was investigated in a sample of 132 mothers of boys with an ASD. Results indicated that, as predicted from previous studies, there was a significant correlation between the depressive state of the mothers and the ratings they gave for their sons’ depression. However, in contradiction to the expected influence direction, mothers who were minimally depressed under-estimated their sons’ depression when cross-validated by structured clinical interviews for depression conducted by a third party, rather than mothers who were more severely depressed exaggerating their sons’ depression. Implications for clinical assessment of the presence of depression in boys with an ASD are discussed.     

The assessment needs of families with children who are deaf and hard of hearing referred for an autism spectrum disorder evaluation

With the increasing prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), clinicians and schools are receiving a larger number of assessment referrals for eligibility or diagnostic clarification of ASD in children who are deaf and hard of hearing (D/HH). Meeting this increasing demand is often difficult given not all assessment professionals seek specialized ASD training and even fewer have experience working with D/HH children. Therefore, families are disadvantaged because of the lack of assessment professionals who specialize in both these areas. School psychologists without such experience are at-risk for misinterpreting or missing key diagnostic information. This study explored the assessment experiences of four families of D/HH children who have ASD. Hearing parents’ and D/HH parents’ perspectives were gathered to explore the family needs. An open-ended survey asked parents to recall the assessment techniques utilized during the process and relate how their child's language skills were accounted for by the clinician. Parent responses revealed interpreters were utilized for various reasons unique to each family. Families expressed difficulty finding ASD specialists who had experience working with D/HH children. This study highlights the importance of selecting a trained interpreter and emphasizes the need of more professionals who have experience assessing ASD in D/HH children.