Improving management of vaccine supply chains: A multi-methods evaluation of vSTEP in Zambia

BackgroundEquipping supply chain professionals at all levels of the health care systems with essential leadership and management skills is essential to achieving global immunization targets. Numerous and diverse professional development initiatives have been established to support vaccine supply chain managers in Gavi-eligible countries. However, COVID-19 catalyzed rapid innovation in approaches to support leadership development in times of rapid change, and systematic evaluation of these approaches can inform future workforce development strategies to ensure resilient health systems. Therefore, we sought to evaluate outcomes and short-term impact of the fully virtual Strategic Training Executive Program 2.0 (vSTEP 2.0) program in Zambia on participant engagement, skill development, and application of new skills to improve supply chain performance.MethodsWe used a multi-method design to describe the outcomes and short-term impact of vSTEP 2.0 at three levels: (1) delegate response to the training experience (including participation, completion, and satisfaction); (2) delegate change in leadership skill (including achievement of learning objectives and change in competencies); and (3) application of new skills to impact supply chain performance.ResultsThe program achieved high levels of engagement and an 83% graduation rate despite the length and rigor of the program. High satisfaction was evidenced by positive feedback from delegates on the quality and relevance of the program, especially in the context of COVID response (100% would "definitely" recommend). Delegates demonstrated significant growth in all domains of leadership competencies and applied their learnings to address a complex challenge in supply chain performance in their home organization.DiscussionThese findings demonstrate a strong appetite for leadership development support among vaccine supply chain professionals, especially in times of rapid change such as during the COVID response. These results also demonstrate the feasibility and impact of a fully virtual model for leadership development, with implications well beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.     

Competency identification and modeling in healthcare leadership

In line with the current interest in leadership development across many industries today, a number of competency-based educational programming initiatives have been launched in professional education. As well, the National Summit on the Future of Education and Practice in Health Management and Policy in 2001 called for the documentation of learning outcomes for continual educational improvement in health management and policy. The National Center for Healthcare Leadership (NCHL) subsequently launched a comprehensive, multi-stage process for identifying the competencies salient to distinguishing outstanding leadership performance in health management. This article describes the plan and the processes associated with NCHL's specification of a preliminary model of core competencies for leadership in health management, as well as the continued methods for refinement and validation of the model with both educators and practitioners in the field. The initial version of the NCHL Competency Model has facilitated field-wide dialogue regarding outcomes-based learning and assessment for both educational and professional development program planning. Subsequent development of the model will continue to stimulate open exchanges regarding pedagogical practice, as well as facilitate the design of leadership assessments for individuals, programs, organizations, and the field at large.     

Organizational and market factors associated with leadership development programs in hospitals: a national study

Effective leadership in hospitals is widely recognized as the key to organizational performance. Clinical, financial, and operational performance is increasingly being linked to the leadership practices of hospital managers. Moreover, effective leadership has been described as a means to achieve competitive advantage. Recent environmental forces, including reimbursement changes and increased competition, have prompted many hospitals to focus on building leadership competencies to successfully address these challenges. Using the resource dependence theory as our conceptual framework, we present results from a national study of hospitals examining the association of organizational and market factors with the provision of leadership development program activities, including the presence of a leadership development program, a diversity plan, a program for succession planning, and career development resources. The data are taken from the American Hospital Association's (AHA) 2008 Survey of Hospitals, the Area Resource File, and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. The results of multilevel logistic regressions of each leadership development program activity on organizational and market factors indicate that hospital size, system and network affiliation, and accreditation are significantly and positively associated with all leadership development program activities. The market factors significantly associated with all leadership development activities include a positive odds ratio for metropolitan statistical area location and a negative odds ratio for the percentage of the hospital's service area population that is female and minority. For-profit hospitals are less likely to provide leadership development program activities. Additional findings are presented, and the implications for hospital management are discussed.     

Strengthening management and leadership practices to increase health-service delivery in Kenya: an evidence-based approach

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that strengthening health systems, through improved leadership and management skills of health teams, can contribute to an increase in health-service delivery outcomes. The study was conducted in six provinces in the Republic of Kenya. METHODS: The study used a non-randomized design comparing measures of key service delivery indicators addressed by health teams receiving leadership and management training (the intervention) against measures in comparison areas not receiving the intervention. Measurements were taken at three time periods: baseline, endline, and approximately six months post intervention. At the district level, health-service coverage was computed. At the facility level, the percentage change in the number of client visits was computed. The t-test was used to test for significance. RESULTS: Results showed significant increases in health-service coverage at the district level (p = <0.05) in the intervention teams compared to the comparison teams. Similarly, there were significant increases in the number of client visits at the facility level in the intervention group versus comparison facilities (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Strengthening the leadership and management skills of health teams, through team-based approaches focused on selected challenges, contributed to improved health service delivery outcomes and these improvements were sustained at least for six months.     

现代医院管理制度背景下公立医院领导力探索

现代医院管理制度对我国公立医院的发展方向、治理机制、管理控制和过程等几个方面提出了全新的要求,为了实现这些新要求,公立医院领导能力至关重要。本研究提出公立医院领导的职责与定位和领导者需要满足的五项通用胜任能力要求,具体包括公共服务意识、战略规划能力、影响力、创新能力和变革能力。建议打破传统的"医而优则仕"的选拔方法,以本研究提出的公立医院院长胜任能力模型作为选拔的标准,采用科学的测评方法选拔与岗位要求匹配的医院高层领导者。本研究为公立医院领导力开发的理论研究贡献了评价标准和培养目标,也为公立医院高层领导班子选拔、配置和培养等管理实践提供了理论支撑。     

Promoting clinical involvement in hospital quality improvement efforts: the effects of top management, board, and physician leadership.

STUDY QUESTION: An examination of the effects of top management, board, and physician leadership for quality on the extent of clinical involvement in hospital CQI/TQM efforts. DATA SOURCES: A sample of 2,193 acute care community hospitals, created by merging data from a 1989 national survey on hospital governance and a 1993 national survey on hospital quality improvement efforts. STUDY DESIGN: Hypotheses were tested using Heckman's two-stage modeling approach. Four dimensions of clinical involvement in CQI/TQM were examined: physician participation in formal QI training, physician participation in QI teams, clinical departments with formally organized QA/QI project teams, and clinical conditions and procedures for which quality of care data are used by formally organized QA/QI project teams. Leadership measures included CEO involvement in CQI/TQM, board quality monitoring, board activity in quality improvement, active-staff physician involvement in governance, and physician-at-large involvement in governance. Relevant control variables were included in the analysis. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Measures of top management leadership for quality and board leadership for quality showed significant, positive relationships with measures of clinical involvement in CQI/TQM. Active-staff physician involvement in governance showed positive, significant relationships with clinical involvement measures, while physician-at-large involvement in governance showed significant, negative relationships. CONCLUSIONS: Study results suggest that leadership from the top promotes clinical involvement in CQI/TQM. Further, results indicate that leadership for quality in healthcare settings may issue from several sources, including managers, boards, and physician leaders.     

Achieving consensus on leadership competencies and outcome measures: The Pediatric Pulmonary Centers' experience

Pediatric Pulmonary Centers (PPCs) are federally funded interdisciplinary leadership training programs aiming to improve the health of families and children. This article describes the process PPCs used to efficiently and effectively achieve consensus on leadership training competencies and outcome measures among a large and diverse group of health professionals. Phase 1 used a modified Delphi technique to develop an initial set of competencies and outcome measures. Phase 2 used the nominal group technique and modified focus group strategies to refine and prioritize the competencies and outcomes measures. Participants reported being highly satisfied with the process and outcomes. In Phase 3, a formal program evaluation instrument was implemented, designed to measure the competency and describe the career paths and leadership accomplishments of previous trainees. The consensus process adopted can serve as a model for academic and public health entities seeking to achieve consensus on program goals, strategies, methods, priorities, and outcomes.     

Future Directions in Leadership Training of MCH Professionals: Cross-Cutting MCH Leadership Competencies

Leadership in Maternal and Child Health (MCH) requires a repertoire of skills that transcend clinical or academic disciplines. This is especially true today as leaders in academic, government and private settings alike must respond to a rapidly changing health environment. To better prepare future MCH leaders we offer a framework of MCH leadership competencies based on the results of a conference held in Seattle in 2004, MCH Working Conference: The Future of Maternal and Child Health Leadership Training. The purpose of the conference was to articulate cross-cutting leadership skills, identify training experiences that foster leadership, and suggest methods to assess leadership training. Following on the work of the Seattle Conference, we sub-divide the 12 cross-cutting leadership competencies into 4 “core” and 8 “applied” competencies, and discuss this distinction. In addition we propose a competency in the knowledge of the history and context of MCH programs in the U.S. We also summarize the conference planning process, agenda, and work group assignments leading to these results. Based on this leadership competency framework we offer a definition of an MCH leader, and recommendations for leadership training, assessment, and faculty development. Taken as a set, these MCH leadership competencies point towards the newly-emerging construct of capability, the ability to adapt to new circumstances and generate new knowledge. “Capstone” projects can provide for both practice and assessment of leadership competencies. The competency-based approach to leadership that has emerged from this process has broad relevance for health, education, and social service sectors beyond the MCH context.     

沧州市免疫规划信息管理系统实施效果评估

目的评估沧州市免疫规划信息管理系统实施效果,进一步完善免疫规划信息化建设。方法对该市18个县级疾病预防控制（以下简称疾控）中心、274个预防接种单位和76所产科医院接种门诊进行调查,查看2010--2012年系统数据报表,对系统的整体运转情况进行评价。结果沧州市免疫规划信息管理系统不用安装软件,操作简便,可满足产科医院、预防接种单位和疾控部门接种服务、信息监测和规划管理的需求;数据的采集和识别以儿童唯一编码为基础,可采用不同识别介质;实现了预防接种信息的共享与国家预防接种信息管理系统的数据交换;整体改变了预防接种门诊服务模式,提高了预防接种服务的工作效率。结论该系统在技术上现已发展成熟。并于2012年9月份通过河北省系统认证。对该系统推广实施应统一领导,保障投入,并强化培训和技术指导工作。     

Vaccine storage and distribution between expanded program on immunization and medical store department in Tanzania: a cost-minimization analysis

BackgroundIn 2016, the Tanzanian government shifted the vaccine supply chain responsibilities from the Medical Store Department (MSD) to the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) to reduce costs. However, cost estimates that informed the decision were based on invoice value of vaccines and related supplies, rather than a proper economic evaluation study. Therefore, this study aims to compare the actual storage and distribution costs of vaccines and related supplies between MSD to EPI.MethodMicro-costing approach was used to estimate resource use at MSD and EPI for the year 2018. Data were collected through a review of documents, warehouse databases, and interviews with key staff at MSD and EPI. We included both capital and recurrent costs. Microsoft Excel® was used for analysis with input data from the UNICEF forecasting tool, WHOs vaccine volume and capacity estimation tool, diesel generator calculator, and supply chain service fee estimator version 1.02.ResultsThe total vaccine storage and distribution costs were estimated to be USD 1,996,286 at MSD and USD 543,648 at EPI. Distribution and program management costs represented 41% (USD 819,288) and 38% (USD 762,968) of the total costs at MSD, while storage and distribution costs represented 43% (USD 234,423) and 34% (USD 184,620) of the total costs at EPI, respectively. The cost drivers at MSD were fuel and transport (21%), receiving and dispatch (19%) and, program management personnel cost (14%), while at EPI were storage space (20%), program management personnel cost (18%) and fuel and transport (15%).ConclusionThe storage and distribution of vaccines in Tanzania via the EPI reduced the vaccine supply chain cost to about 27% of the program costs at MSD.     

Feminist leadership through total quality management

Feminist leadership in nursing can be achieved through Total Quality Management. Total Quality Management (TQM) is a philosophy and technology that represents the foundation of a continuously improving organization. The feminist leadership ideas practiced by nurses, such as empowering staff and decision by consensus, are also central to TQM. Feminist leadership utilizing TQM enables employees to creatively contribute to the system without fear or intimidation. Employees at all levels in the organization are then empowered. The role of the feminist leader using TQM is one of facilitator rather than authority figure. Feminist leadership in nursing can spearhead the opportunity for improvement to provide high‐quality, cost‐effective health care in a troubled and complex economic environment.     

Time management and leadership styles: an empirical study of long-term health care administrators

Is there a relationship between the type of leadership style employed by long-term health care administrators and the effective use and management of time? This paper describes a 1989 study of 188 administrators of skilled nursing facilities and intermediate care facilities in Connecticut. Two self-rating instruments were employed: the Executive Time Management Inventory (Hartley, Kramer, et al.) and the LEAD-Self instrument (Hersey and Blanchard). Four hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance to examine relationships among time management, leadership style, size of facility, administrator experience, and cost factors. Statistical procedures included Pearson Product-Moment correlations, analysis of variance, t-tests, and partial correlations. Results of the study included (1) time management effectiveness increased as administrators gained more experience; (2) no significant relationship existed between type of leadership style and time management effectiveness; (3) women administrators perceived themselves as significantly more effective time managers than men did; (4) most health care administrators employed the same primary leadership style: "selling," which is defined as high relationship/high task; and (5) institutional size was not related to the time management effectiveness of the administrator. The findings have implications for pre-service and in-service training and for future studies in health administration education.     

Cómo los equipos de dirección usan los sistemas de información y control en la gestión hospitalaria

ObjectiveTo analyze the relationship between the characteristics of top management teams and the different use of management information and control systems (MICS) to implement policies that encourage cooperation and activity coordination in public hospitals.MethodsData were collected through a questionnaire sent to each member of the top management teams of 231 Spanish public hospitals (chief executive director, medical director, nursing director and director for financial and social issues). A total of 457 valid questionnaires were returned, composing 86 full top management teams (37.23%).ResultsTop management team diversity was positively related to the interactive use of MICS. Management teams composed of younger members and members with longer service used MICS interactively. Top management teams with a predominantly clinical education and experience used MICS interactively, while top teams with a predominantly administrative education and experience used MICS diagnostically. The results also showed that cooperation and coordination in hospitals were positively related to the interactive use of MICS and were negatively related to the diagnostic use of MICS.ConclusionsThe interactive use of MICS is an important mediator in the relationship between top team diversity and policies focused on hospital decentralization. Top management teams with diverse characteristics (e.g. age, length of service, education and experience) use management information interactively to enhance activity coordination and resource allocation in hospitals.     

Competency-based healthcare management education: the Saint Louis University experience

As a follow up to a school-wide initiative to create a common set of competencies for all degree programs in the Saint Louis University School of Public Health, in January 2000 the Department of Health Management and Policy (HMP, renamed from the Department of Health Administration in 2002) began a process to develop a competency-based curriculum for its Master of Health Administration (MHA) degree program with the goal of establishing a foundation for systematically measuring the learning outcomes of its students as they progressed through the program. This article describes how the department developed a set of competencies most appropriate for graduate training in healthcare management, how it incorporated these into its overall MHA program curriculum and content, and how effective this approach has been in measuring student progress in mastering these competencies over the first two years of this initiative. The problems and challenges encountered during this process are discussed, as are the next steps for effectively using competencies to assess healthcare management program learning outcomes. Our experience provides a model for other healthcare management programs considering using an outcomes approach for curriculum development and assessment.     

Cost-effectiveness of immunizations: The Gambia revisited

This paper reports on the results of an intensive study of thecosts and cost-effectiveness of the Expanded Programme on Immunization(EPI) in The Gambia. Costs in 1988, for the nation as a wholeand for a large sample of specific local delivery sites, andtheir relation to vaccination coverage are presented. The total and average costs of the full national EPI fell impressivelyin The Gambia from about US$1.50 per dose in the early 1980sto US$0.60 in 1988. That conclusion is reinforced by improvementsin vaccination coverage and by a very large decline in costper fully immunized child from about US$19.00 to US$5.64. Comparisonsof the latter finding with the earlier Gambian value, and withother developing countries' figures, suggest a highly cost-effectiveEPI for 1988. Some of the major reasons for this were good administration,widespread deployment of delivery teams, and effective socialmobilization (community awareness) efforts. The study offers site-specific cost estimates that reveal largevariations in average costs among centres. Lower average costsappear to be based on economies of scale and greater intensityof use of facilities and teams, together with better management.As with the estimates for the full national programme, thesevariations are not explicable simply as artefacts of methodologicaltechniques and assumptions. Although recent (1988) Gambian data indicate relatively lowcosts and high cost-effectiveness, the continuation of, andprobable increase in, other threats to health than vaccine-preventablediseases pose daunting challenges to all parties concerned withimproving the allocation of scarce resources for the wellbeingof the Gambian people, and of others in the developing world.     

Development of physician leadership competencies: perceptions of physician leaders, physician educators and medical students

Research regarding the development of healthcare leadership competencies is widely available. However, minimal research has been published regarding the development of physician leadership competencies, despite growing recognition in recent years of the important need for effective physician leadership. Usingdata from an electronically distributed, self-administered survey, the authors examined the perceptions held by 110 physician leaders, physician educators, and medical students regarding the extent to which nine competencies are important for effective physician leadership, ten activities are indicative of physician leadership, and seven methods are effective for the development of physician leadership competencies. Results indicated that "interpersonal and communication skills" and "professional ethics and social responsibility" are perceived as the most important competencies for effective physician leadership. Furthermore, respondents believe "influencing peers to adopt new approaches in medicine" and "administrative responsibility in a healthcare organization" are the activities most indicative of effective physician leadership. Finally, respondents perceive"coaching or mentoring from an experienced leader" and "on-job experience (e.g., a management position)" as the most effective methods for developing physician leadership competencies. The implications of these findings for the education and development of physician leaders are discussed.     

Developing leadership in healthcare administration: a competency assessment tool

Despite the many graduate programs that specialize in health administration, healthcare leaders and practitioners have expressed concern about the quality of preparation of health administration graduates. The purpose of this study was to facilitate one part of an integrated approach to leadership development that spans academic and practitioner settings. The approach was to design a competency assessment tool for early careerists who have two to five years of postgraduate experience and who aspire to fill senior leadership positions in complex, provider-based healthcare organizations. Open-ended interviews with key informants and a comprehensive review of relevant literature were done to identify and categorize a set of competencies relevant to early careerists. Based on data from key informants, specific work experiences and academic courses were mapped to each competency, indicating where and how such competencies might be developed. A simple rating system was then added to assess each competency, which resulted in the completion of the tool. Finally, the tool was piloted in a practitioner setting at the Massachusetts General Hospital Administrative Fellowship Program and in an academic setting at the Yale University Health Management Program. The resulting tool includes 52 competencies categorized into four domains: (1) technical skills (operations, finance; information resources, human resources, and strategic planning/external affairs); (2) industry knowledge (clinical process and healthcare institutions); (3) analytic and conceptual reasoning; and (4) interpersonal and emotional intelligence. Early experience with the tool suggests that it can facilitate career planning among graduate students, early careerists, and their mentors. Further, the tool can help directors of both academic and practitioner programs identify strengths and gaps in their existing curricula or training programs. By offering specific competencies linked to work experiences and graduate courses, the tool is an initial step toward promoting collaborative efforts between academic and practitioner programs.     

Carnegie Mellon University's MMM program: management education for 21st-century physicians

The number and types of executive and graduate-level management programs for physicians have exploded in recent years. These programs take on a variety of formats, ranging from executive seminars to master's-level degree programs. Options for physicians obtaining the master's degree tend to be either regionally based programs in traditional evening classes or nationally based programs that combine executive education formats with distance education. This paper examines a nationally based program - the Master of Medical Management (MMM) - from the perspectives of an administrator and a graduate of the program. It offers reasons for the growth of similar programs and data from students enrolled in the Carnegie Mellon University MMM program. The paper also examines educational outcomes in the form of behavioral competencies that the physicians acquired in the program. It concludes with reflections on the future of the MMM and related programs for physician executives in the 21st century.     

Empowering primary care workers to improve health services: results from Mozambique's leadership and management development program

This article is the third article in the Human Resources for Health journal's feature on the theme of leadership and management in public health. The series of six articles has been contributed by Management Sciences for Health (MSH) and will be published article-by-article over the next few weeks.