原发性肝细胞癌中肝干细胞标记物的检测

目的研究肝干细胞标记物在原发性肝细胞癌中的表达特征。方法45例原发性肝细胞癌手术切除标本经10％中性福尔马林固定、常规石蜡包埋，用免疫组化EliVision两步法检测AFP、GST-1T、CK19、c-kit单克隆抗体的表达。结果 c-kit、AFP、GST-π、CK19阳性率分别为13．3％（6／45）、53．3（24／45）、60．0％（27／35）、37．8％（17／45）；癌旁组织也不同程度表达肝干细胞标记；血anti-HBc阳性、癌组织AFP阳性患者癌组织CK19阳性率分别高于血anti-HBc阴性、癌组织AFP阴性患者。结论原发性肝细胞癌和癌旁组织中均有部分细胞表达肝干细胞标志，可能与肝细胞癌的发展有关。     

肝细胞性淋巴上皮瘤样癌3例及文献复习

目的探讨肝细胞性淋巴上皮瘤样癌的临床病理学特点。方法通过HE、免疫组化染色对3例肝组织中肝细胞性淋巴上皮瘤样癌进行形态学观察。结果瘤细胞异型明显，呈小灶状分布，细胞呈多边形，核居中央，有一清楚核仁，细胞质丰富，嗜酸性，可见细小颗粒，易见核分裂象。肿瘤间质内见大量成熟的淋巴细胞浸润，且分散在瘤细胞之间。3例中肿瘤细胞CK7、Hepatocyte、EB（-），CK8、AFP（＋），而间质中淋巴细胞CIM5（＋）、小B淋巴细胞CD20（＋）、小T淋巴细胞CD45RO（＋）。结论肝细胞性淋巴上皮瘤样癌是一种少见的肝上皮源性恶性肿瘤，其诊断主要依靠组织病理学和免疫组化标记。     

胎牛小肠上皮干细胞的分离和培养并诱导其向肝细胞样细胞分化北大核心CSCD

目的建立胎牛小肠上皮干细胞（IESC）分离和培养的体系,并检测其表面标志物及向肝细胞样细胞分化的潜能。方法取3~5月龄胎牛,分离小肠组织,用胶原酶消化获得IESC,在DMEM/F12培养基中培养,观察其形态学特征。传代培养、生长曲线分析其增殖能力,并探索体外分化潜能。反转录PCR检测IESC标志基因Bmi1、Hes1、Lgr5和细胞角蛋白19（CK19）的mRNA表达,免疫细胞化学染色检测CK19、Bmi1、LGR5蛋白的表达。经成纤维细胞生长因子4（FGF-4）和肝细胞生长因子（HGF）诱导后,通过糖原染色和反转录PCR法观察向肝细胞样细胞的分化情况。结果 IESC可在体外扩增培养,表达CK19、Bmi1、Hes1、Lgr5的mRNA和CK19、Bmi1、LGR5蛋白,诱导后细胞糖原染色阳性,表达甲胎蛋白（AFP）和白蛋白（ALB）的mRNA。结论成功建立了IESC的分离培养方法,并成功诱导IESC向肝细胞样细胞分化。     

肝癌组织细胞角蛋白7、19表达的评估

目的： 分析细胞角蛋白7、19（CK7、CK19）和AFP在原发性肝癌组织中的表达，评估其在肝癌鉴别诊断中的价值。 方法： 采用免疫组化法检测原发性肝癌组织中CK7、CK19和AFP的表达，观察3种表达产物在肝癌不同组织类型中的表达。 结果： 106例肝癌组织中，CK7表达阳性率分别为：肝细胞癌29.4%(25/85)，胆管上皮癌58.3%(7/12)，混合型肝癌66.7%(6/9)。CK19表达阳性率为：肝细胞癌23.5%(20/85)、胆管上皮癌50.0%(6/12)、混合型肝癌55.6%(5/9)。CK7和CK19共同表达阳性率为：肝细胞癌9.4%（8/85），胆管细胞癌41.7%(5/12),混合型肝癌55.6%(5/9)。CK7、CK19、CK7/CK19在混合型肝癌和胆管上皮癌表达阳性率高于肝细胞癌。AFP表达的阳性率为：肝细胞癌56.4%(47/85)、胆管上皮癌25.0%(3/12)、混合型肝癌33.3%(3/9)，AFP在后两者的表达阳性率低于前者。 结论：CK7和CK19在混合型肝癌和胆管上皮癌表达阳性率高于肝细胞癌。而AFP在肝癌组织的表达与之相反。联合检测CK7、CK19和AFP可能对肝细胞癌和胆管上皮癌的鉴别诊断有参考价值。     

小鼠胚胎肝祖细胞的分离和扩增培养

目的从胎龄14.5 d的C57小鼠胚胎肝脏中分离、培养小鼠胚胎肝祖细胞(m HPCs),并将其诱导分化为胆管细胞。方法用荧光激活细胞筛选法(FACS)分选DLK1表面抗原阳性的小鼠胚胎肝细胞,并和小鼠胚胎成纤维细胞(MEFs)Transwell共培养或者单独培养。细胞免疫荧光检测刚分选和共培养4和6 d的DLK1~+细胞的甲胎蛋白(AFP)、白蛋白(ALB)及细胞角蛋白19(CK19)抗原的表达。结果体外共培养时,大部分DLK1~+细胞分裂增殖明显,呈葡萄状聚集生长。第4天,部分细胞开始贴壁增殖,形态开始变成梭形。结果显示,分选的DLK1~+细胞表达AFP和少量ALB,但不表达CK19;在共培养的第4天其开始表达CK19,和微弱表达ALB;第6天,其高表达CK19,而几乎不表达的ALB。结论应用FACS技术成功从E14.5胎肝细胞中分选出DLK1~+细胞并鉴定其大部分为mHPCs,并可在体外与MEFs Transwell共培养的条件下,诱导培养其分化为胆管细胞。     

氧化损伤对骨髓源性肝前体细胞恶性转化的影响

目的 探讨活性氧自由基对骨髓源性肝前体细胞恶性转化的影响。 方法 取经过鉴定的3代骨髓间充质干细胞（BMSCs）分为3组：对照组（BMSCs）,生长因子诱导组（BMSCs+HGF+EGF）,过氧化氢刺激组（BMSCs+HGF+EGF+ H₂O₂）。分别在细胞培养的第7天、14天、21天、28天用RT-PCR方法检测各组细胞的白蛋白(ALB)、甲胎蛋白（AFP）、角蛋白18 (CK18) mRNA的表达。用免疫细胞化学方法检测细胞γ-谷氨酰转酞酶(γ-GT)的表达,用Schiff染色方法检测细胞DNA含量,用流式细胞仪检测非整倍体细胞。 结果 生长因子诱导组及过氧化氢刺激组细胞有ALB mRNA、AFP mRNA及CK18 mRNA的表达,过氧化氢刺激组细胞AFP mRNA、CK18 mRNA、γ-GT的表达、DNA含量及非整倍体细胞均高于生长因子诱导组（P<0.05）。 结论 骨髓间充质干细胞在体外诱导成为肝前体细胞,活性氧自由基可促使肝前体细胞过度增殖并恶性转化。     

丁型病毒性肝炎的原位分子杂交及免疫组化研究

利用原位分子杂交和免疫组化方法对１４２例乙型肝炎活检肝组织进行丁型肝炎病毒ＲＮＡ及其抗原的定位研究。２８／１４２例丁型肝炎病毒标记阳性。其中慢性重症型６例；慢性活动性１７例；慢性持续性５例。慢性活动性乙肝重叠丁型肝炎病毒感染组发生早期肝硬变的比例明显高于无重叠感染组（Ｐ＜０．０５）。２８例丁型肝炎病毒感染肝组织１９例ＨＢｃＡｇ阳性，并以核浆型为主，提示活动性ＨＢＶ复制与ＨＤＶ感染的正相关性，两者相加作用导致肝损害加重并加速发展为肝纤维化。ＨＤＶＲＮＡ在肝细胞内大量蓄积，ＨＤＡｇ在碎屑状坏死边缘肝细胞或气球样变肝细胞内呈浆膜型分布，提示ＨＤＶ直接细胞毒在丁型肝炎发病学中的作用。     

慢性肝病肝纤维化指标的临床研究

目的探讨肝纤维化指标包括透明质酸（ＨＡ）、Ⅲ型前胶原（ＰＣⅢ）、层粘蛋白（ＬＮ）及 Ⅳ型胶原（Ⅳ－Ｃ）等与慢性肝病的关系方法应用放免法检测１０３例慢性乙型肝炎患者、４２例肝细胞癌和６４例肝炎肝硬变患者及４０例正常人的ＨＡ、ＰＣⅢ、ＬＮ和Ⅳ－Ｃ的值．结果慢性乙型肝炎轻、中、重度病人这四项血清学指标依次升高;慢性肝炎（重度）、肝硬化、肝细胞癌的四项指标均有明星升高．结论慢性乙型肝炎（重度）、肝炎肝硬变和肝细胞癌患者与肝纤维化有密切关系;上述四项指标的联合应用有助于慢性肝病肝纤维化的诊断．     

库普弗细胞对肝星状细胞活化和增殖的影响

肝纤维化是各种慢性肝病向肝硬化发展的必经阶段,其形成过程可简单归纳为：致肝病因子损伤肝细胞→库普弗细胞（KC）激活→分泌多种细胞因子（CK）→星状细胞（HSC）激活、增殖、转化为肌样成纤维细胞→产生大量细胞外基质（ECM）→合成大于降解并沉积→肝纤维化形成。已知HSC的激活是肝纤维化发生的中心环节,HSC的激活受多种CK的调控。目前就KC和HSC之间的相互作用还缺乏更深入的认识,尤其关于KC对HSC活化和增殖的影响尚无定论。本文仅就这方面相关文献综述如下。     

C-kit+细胞体外增殖、分化的研究

分离纯化卵圆细胞并对其体外增殖、分化进行研究。SD大鼠喂饲2-乙酰氨基芴(2-acetainofluorene,2-AAF)10mg/kg,以促进肝脏干细胞增殖,通过免疫磁珠法(Magnetic activated cell sorting,MACS)标记C-kit阳性细胞以纯化卵圆细胞,进行体外培养,采用免疫细胞化学、逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)等方法观察其体外增殖、分化特性。以MACS纯化的C-kit阳性卵圆细胞,90%以上为卵圆细胞抗原(OV6)阳性,大部分甲胎蛋白(AFP)阳性。C-kit阳性细胞在体外增殖能力较强,能形成集落样生长,并向胆管细胞及肝细胞分化,表达角蛋白19(CK19)和/或白蛋白(ALB)标记。细胞集落RT-PCR结果显示AFP、CK19及ALB基因均有表达。以上结果表明利用C-kit标记通过MACS纯化的C-kit 细胞为具有双向分化潜能的肝脏干细胞。     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

Studien zur humoralen Regulation des erythropoetischen Proliferationsspeichers beim Menschen

Zusammenfassung Die Beeinflussung der Erythroblasten-Proliferation durch das Mikromilieu wurde in vitro mittels Auswertung durch Differential- und Mitosezählungen und Signifikanzberechnung vieler Versuchsreihen auch unter verschiedenen pathologischen Bedingungen getestet.Sowohl die Mitosehäufigkeit wie die Ausreifung waren positiv mit dem Erythropoetingehalt des Medium korreliert. Der Effekt wurde durch Folsäure, Ätiocholanolon und cAMP verstärkt. Cobalt stimulierte ebenso wie Testosteron und Methenolon in vitro unabhängig von der Erythropoetinkonzentration im Medium die Erythroblastenproliferation. Ein vermindertes Eisenangebot störte die endgültige Ausreifung der Erythroblasten zu Retikulozyten und bewirkte dadurch eine Ineffektivität der Erythorpoese. Anhaltspunkte für ein Erythrozyten-Chalon oder einen Erythropoetinhemmkörper ließen sich aus unserem Versuchsansatz nicht gewinnen, weil er die Transformation der pluripotenten in die erythropoetin-sensible Stammzelle nicht einschließt. Als Nebenbefund ergab sich eine Stimulation des granulozytopoetischen Proliferationsspeichers durch Serumzusatz zum Medium von Patienten nach akutem Blutverlust und bei Polycythämia vera.Unterstützt durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft     

HLA study in Amerindian Bolivia La Paz Aymaras

Aymara people has been a relatively homogeneous group since Spanish Conquest by 1,532 CE, even if previously represented a group of various cultural defined populations who gave rise to them. They were and are established in Andean Altiplano around Titikaka Lake (Bolivia, Peru), Argentina and Chile neighborhood, speak Aymara language and have been maintained after Europeans arrival at a lower social status than Quechua (Inca) speaking people. However, both Aymara and Quechua populations acknowledge Titikaka Lake as center of their origins; both languages are also related. Specific high frequencies of HLA-A*02, -A*24 and -A*68, HLA-B*35, -B*39 and -B*48, HLA-DRB1*08:02, -DRB1*09:01, and -DRB1*14:02, and HLA-DQB1*04:02, -DQB1*03:02 and -DQB1*03:01 alleles are found in Aymaras and HLA class II haplotypes common to Andean Amerindians (DRB1*08:02-DQB1*04:02 and DRB1*04:03-DQB1*03:02), like Quechua, Aymara, Uros, Lamas and Mapuche are also found in Easter and other Pacific Islands. Giant human head stone statues at Tiwanaku (Titikaka Lake, Bolivia) are also found at Easter Island. Thus, it is possible a gene and cultural flow between Andean Amerindians and Easter and other Pacific Islands, as it was demonstrated by Thor Heyerdahl in his Kon-Tiki expedition which reached Pacific Islands sailing from El Callao Harbour (Lima, Peru).     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Lipid composition of metacestodes of Taenia taeniaeformis and lipid changes during growth

A lipid analysis was performed on developing metacestodes of Taenia taeniaeformis removed from the livers of rats at times varying from 3 to 35 weeks post infection. Lipid accounted for 7–21% of the dry weight of the parasites. The highest proportions were found at the earlier stages. The distribution was as follows; neutral lipid 27–45%; glycolipid 5–11%; and phospholipid 50–61%. The major neutral lipid was cholesterol, and minor neutral lipids were sterol esters, triglycerides, diglycerides and monoglycerides. Hydrocarbons were present throughout development, but in the highest amounts at the earlier stages. Five different glycolipids were found, all of which were identified as glycosphingolipids. An increase in the proportion of more complex glycolipids was noted as parasites grew older. Ten different phospholipids were identified, with the major components being phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine. Other phospholipids were: lysophosphatides, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidic acid, diphosphatidylglycerol, sphingomyelin, and an unknown phospholipid component. Changes in the relative amounts of the two major phospholipids were found when the early and late stages were compared. Two lipids found throughout development were identified as glycosylated dolichol phosphates, and they comprised between 1 and 3% of the total phospholipid fraction. Nineteen fatty acids were detected, and the fatty acid distribution for each lipid class at each stage was determined. Seven major fatty acids were common to each. These were: hexadecanoic, octadecanoic, oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, docosanoic, and docosahexaenoic.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

Simple Serological Assays for Detecting Rice Tungro Viruses

An attempt was made to produce sensitive and specific polyclonal antisera against the viruses causing rice tungro disease, and to assess their potential for use in simple diagnostic tests. Using a multiple, sequential injection procedure, seven batches of polyclonal antisera against rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) were produced. These were characterized for their sensitivity and specificity using ring-interface precipitin test and double antibody sandwich (DAS) ELISA. Thirty-one weeks after the first immunization, antiserum batch B6b for RTBV showed the highest ring interface titer (DEP = 1:1920). For RTSV, batches S3, S4b and S5b all had similar titres (DEP = 1:640). In DAS-ELISA, however, significant differences among purified antisera (IgG) batches were observed only at IgG dilution of 10^-3. At that dilution, IgGB4b showed the greatest sensitivity, while IgGS3 showed greatest sensitivity for RTSV. When all IgG batches were tested against 11 tungro field isolates (dual RTBV-RTSV infections) at sample dilution of 1:10, IgGB4b and IgGB6b for RTBV and IgGS3 and IgGS6b for RTSV performed equally well. However, after cross adsorption with healthy plant extracts in a specially prepared healthy plant-Sepharose affinity column, only IgGB6b could be used specifically to detect RTBV in a simple tissue-print assay.     

Is it worthy to take full-course immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis? About efficacy biomarker of allergen immunotherapy

Nowadays, people pay more attention to biomarkers that can predict clinical efficacy of immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis. As the only recognized aetiological treatment, the efficacy of allergen immunotherapy (AIT) has been proved by many studies. However, treatment success depends on compliance and persistence greatly, which can be impaired by the lengthy duration of AIT and socioeconomic status of patients. Besides, ineffectiveness is another factor that accounts for non-adherence. If the clinical efficacy can be predicted in the early stage of immunotherapy, it can help patients choose appropriate treatment plans, increase patient compliance and optimize the allocation of medical resources. This paper mainly focuses on five candidate biomarkers, the sIgE/tIgE ratio before treatment, serum inhibitory activity for IgE, decreased basophil activation, upregulation of Tregs and tolerogenic DCs, reviews the time when potential biomarkers can predict or monitor the efficacy of AIT, discusses the reason why these indicators could serve as efficacy biomarkers and interactions among potential biomarkers.     

Neurotransmitter signaling pathways required for normal development in Xenopus laevis embryos: a pharmacological survey screen

Neurotransmitters are not only involved in brain function but are also important signaling molecules for many diverse cell types. Neurotransmitters are widely conserved, from evolutionarily ancient organisms lacking nervous systems through man. Here, results are reported from a loss‐ and gain‐of‐function survey, using pharmacological modulators of several neurotransmitter pathways to examine possible roles for these pathways in normal embryogenesis. Applying reagents targeting the glutamatergic, adrenergic and dopaminergic pathways to embryos of Xenopus laevis from gastrulation to organogenesis stages, we observed and quantified numerous malformations, including craniofacial defects, hyperpigmentation, muscle mispatterning and miscoiling of the gut. These data implicate several key neurotransmitters in new embryonic patterning roles, reveal novel earlier stages for processes involved in eye development, suggest new targets for subsequent molecular‐genetic investigation, and highlight the necessity for in‐depth toxicology studies of psychoactive compounds to which human embryos might be exposed during pregnancy.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.