视黄醇转运的分子机制

本文从视黄醇（维生素Ａ）的载体蛋白（ＲＢＰ０在内醇转运中的作用和结构特点,结合内醇的ＲＢＰ与前白蛋白（ＴＴＰ）的作用,视黄醇的转运及膜受体的性质等方面介绍视黄醇转运到靶细胞的分子机制。     

视黄醇结合蛋白的分子生物学

视黄醇结合蛋白 (RBP)是维生素A(VitA)的运载蛋白 ,结构上为疏水小分子结合蛋白家族的成员。视黄醇结合蛋白在肝脏中合成并释放入血液后 ,通过与视黄醇 (ROH)、甲状腺素运载蛋白 (TTR)及细胞表面受体相互作用 ,在VitA的储存、代谢、转运到周围靶器官中发挥重要功能。本文从基因结构与表达、构效关系及临床意义等方面介绍了视黄醇结合蛋白的分子生物学。     

视黄醇类结合蛋白的分类、结构及功能

视黄醇类结合蛋白(retinoids binding protein)是体内负责结合并转运维生素A的各种活性代谢物(视黄醇类)的一类蛋白质,主要包括血浆视黄醇结合蛋白(RBP)、胞内视黄醇结合蛋白(CRBP)、胞内视黄酸结合蛋白(CRABP)、胞内视黄醛结合蛋白(CRALBP)和光受体视黄醇类结合蛋白(IRBP)五大类。它们空间结构高度保守,分布广泛,功能多样,与多种疾病的发生发展关系密切。     

视黄醇结合蛋白及其基因的分子生物学

视黄醇结合蛋白（RBP）是一类维生素A（VitA）的运载蛋白,参与血清和细胞内视黄醇/视黄酸的转运,是疏水小分子结合蛋白家族的成员。这类RBP主要在肝脏中合成并释放入血液进而进入各种组织。血清RBP通过与视黄醇、前白蛋白及细胞表面受体相互作用,在VitA 的储存、代谢、转运到周围靶器官中具有重要功能;细胞RBP则主要在细胞内发挥类似作用。本文介绍了视黄醇结合蛋白的作用机理、组织定位和发育性表达,还介绍了视黄醇结合蛋白基因的结构、染色体定位以及与动物繁殖性能的关系。Abstract: Retinol-binding proteins (RBPs) are a kind of circulating carrier proteins for serum and cellular retinol and retinol acid, which are lipid-soluble vitamins, and are members of hydrophobic binding protein family. Serum RBPs were synthesized primarily in liver, then was released into blood streams, and then to various tissues. Under the interaction with substances such as retinol, pre-albumin and the receptors of cellular surface, they play important roles in storage, metabolism of VitA and transport of VitA to the target cells. Cellular RBPs play the similar function as serum RBPs in intracell. This review introduces action mechanism, tissue localization and developmental expression of retinol-binding proteins. This review also introduces the structure, chromosome mapping and their relationships with reproductive performance of retinol-binding protein genes.     

视黄醇结合蛋白4与2型糖尿病微血管病变的研究进展

视黄醇结合蛋白4（Retinolbindingprotein4,RBP4）是一种分泌型视黄醇结合蛋白,主要由肝脏合成,在协助视黄醇发挥生理功能中起着重要的作用。近年研究发现,RBP4是一种新的循环性脂肪因子,亦能由脂肪组织特异性分泌,它不仅能够抑制肌肉组织中的胰岛素信号通路,而且能够促进糖异生,增加肝糖输出,从而导致胰岛素抵抗的发生,增加糖尿病的发病风险。目前RBP4与2型糖尿病（Type2diabetes mellitus,T2DM）关系逐渐受到人们的重视,本文就RBP4的生理功能、RBP4与T2DM微血管病变的研究进展作一综述。     

视黄醇结合蛋白L35和Q98位点突变及其对与视黄醇结合的影响

根据视黄醇结合蛋白 (RBP)晶体结构和计算机模拟对拟突变位点所作出的结构预测 ,筛选出 2个可能对RBP结合能力有影响的氨基酸位点 .利用定点突变技术分别将 35位亮氨酸突变为能引入较大构象变化的甘氨酸 ,将 98位谷氨酰胺突变为亲水、带正电的精氨酸 .将突变后的RBP基因转入表达宿主菌获得表达后 ,对突变体蛋白实现了变性条件下的分离纯化 .复性后与视黄醇的荧光增强饱和滴定试验表明 ,35位突变为甘氨酸后对RBP结合能力没有产生明显的影响 ,但 98位突变为精氨酸后 ,则显著的提高了与视黄醇的结合能力 ,说明 98位是影响RBP与视黄醇结合和解离的重要位点 .     

视黄醇结合蛋白研究

人视黄醇结合蛋白 (ｒｅｔｉｎｏｌｂｉｎｄｉｎｇｐｒｏ ｔｅｉｎ ,ＲＢＰ)由 1 84个氨基酸组成 ,分子量 2 1ｋｄ ,是单链、疏水小分子结合蛋白 ,属于脂肪酸结合蛋白家族成员。ＲＢＰ在肝脏中合成 ,释放入血后与视黄醇 (ＲＯＨ)、甲状腺素运载蛋白(ＴＴＲ)以 1∶1∶1的比例形成三元复合物 ,是体内运送视黄醇至其特定靶组织的运载蛋白[1] 。ＲＢＰ的ｍＲＮＡ在肝中的含量最高。ＲＢＰ只有受到视黄醇的刺激才分泌 ,视黄醇的缺乏会阻断细胞内合成的ＲＢＰ由内质网到高尔基体的转运 ,从而影响ＲＢＰ的分泌 ,而且分泌入血的ＲＢＰ量也受到视黄醇…     

2型糖尿病患者尿视黄醇结合蛋白与视网膜病变的相关性

目的 探讨2型糖尿病患者尿视黄醇结合（RBP）与视网膜病变相关性。方法 采用酶联免疫法检测158例2型糖尿病患者24h尿视黄醇结合蛋白排泄（24hURBP）及24h尿白蛋白排泄（24hUAE）,并同时用眼底镜仔细检查其眼氏。结果 糖尿病视网膜病变（DR）发生率随着24hURBP、24hUAE增加而显著增高,24hURBP、24hUAE也随DR的程度加重而显著增加。结论 2型糖尿病患者DR与尿RBP、尿白蛋白呈正相关。     

视黄醇结合蛋白的分离纯化及其抗血清的制备

建立了经硫酸铵分级、DEAE-Sephadex A25柱、Sephadex G200柱、Ultrogel ACA44柱和 Sephadex G100柱层析分离纯化人血浆视黄醇结合蛋白的方法.经SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳鉴定,其纯度达到电泳纯.以此电泳纯的视黄醇结合蛋白免疫家兔得到了高效价的抗血清.     

视黄醇结合蛋白两种测定方法的可比性与不同真空采血管间干扰性评价

目的观察视黄醇结合蛋白（RBP）免疫比浊法（340nm波长）和胶乳增强免疫比浊法（600nm波长）两种检测方法的可比性,以及不同采血管的影响差异。方法用三种采血管,随机抽取40例样本,由同一操作者在同一生化仪上,用两种不同方法学的RBP试剂进行检测。并用SPSS17．0统计软件进行处理,以P〈0．05为有统计学意义。结果普通无抗凝剂采血管用两种方法测定比较,P〉0．05无显著性差异;免疫比浊法用肝素抗凝采血管与普通无抗凝剂管相比,有显著性差异（P〈0．05）;胶乳增强免疫比浊法用分离胶采血管与普通无抗凝剂管相比,有显著性差异（P〈0．05）。结论视黄醇结合蛋白（RBP）两种检测方法的检测结果具有可比性,可应用于临床;免疫比浊法（340nm波长）受肝素抗凝管干扰影响结果;胶乳增强免疫比浊法（600m波长）受分离胶采血管干扰影响结果。     

Amino acid sequence homologies between rabbit, rat, and human serum retinol-binding proteins

The main transporting protein for vitamin A in rabbit serum, the retinol-binding protein (RBP), was isolated and its amino acid sequence determined. Rabbit RBP was found to be highly homologous to human RBP, whose amino acid sequence was elucidated earlier, and to rat RBP. The rat RBP sequence was obtained by combining information deduced from the nucleotide sequences of two overlapping cDNA clones with the NH2-terminal sequence of the isolated protein determined by automated Edman degradation. The identity between the three proteins is approximately 90%. The high degree of homology between RBP molecules from different species is probably explained by the fact that RBP participates in at least three types of molecular interactions: in the binding of prealbumin, in the interaction with retinol, and in the recognition of a specific cell surface receptor. All these interactions should lead to a conservation of RBP structure. The amino acid differences between rabbit, rat, and human RBP are discussed in light of the recent elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of human RBP. Hybridization of a probe isolated from a rat RBP cDNA clone to restriction enzyme-digested genomic DNA from rat and mouse suggests that RBP is encoded by a single gene.     

The structure of human retinol-binding protein (RBP) with its carrier protein transthyretin reveals an interaction with the carboxy terminus of RBP

Whether ultimately utilized as retinoic acid, retinal, or retinol, vitamin A is transported to the target cells as all-trans-retinol bound to retinol-binding protein (RBP). Circulating in the plasma, RBP itself is bound to transthyretin (TTR, previously referred to as thyroxine-binding prealbumin). In vitro one tetramer of TTR can bind two molecules of retinol-binding protein. However, the concentration of RBP in the plasma is limiting, and the complex isolated from serum is composed of TTR and RBP in a 1 to 1 stoichiometry. We report here the crystallographic structure at 3.2 A of the protein-protein complex of human RBP and TTR. RBP binds at a 2-fold axis of symmetry in the TTR tetramer, and consequently the recognition site itself has 2-fold symmetry: Four TTR amino acids (Arg-21, Val-20, Leu-82, and Ile-84) are contributed by two monomers. Amino acids Trp-67, Phe-96, and Leu-63 and -97 from RBP are flanked by the symmetry-related side chains from TTR. In addition, the structure reveals an interaction of the carboxy terminus of RBP at the protein-protein recognition interface. This interaction, which involves Leu-182 and Leu-183 of RBP, is consistent with the observation that naturally occurring truncated forms of the protein are more readily cleared from plasma than full-length RBP. Complex formation prevents extensive loss of RBP through glomerular filtration, and the loss of Leu-182 and Leu-183 would result in a decreased affinity of RBP for TTR.     

The piscine plasma retinol-binding protein. Purification, partial amino acid sequence and interaction with mammalian transthyretin of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) retinol-binding protein.

1. Retinol-binding protein (RBP) has been isolated from the pooled plasma or rainbow trouts (Oncorhinchus mykiss) by gel filtration, hydrophobic interaction chromatography and ion-exchange chromatography. By this procedure two forms of the protein, both with a molecular mass (approximately 20 kDa) similar to that of mammalian RBP, were purified to homogeneity. Five amino acid substitutions have been found in the partial (about 60%) sequences of the two forms of trout RBP, which are presumably acetylated at their N terminus. The apparent participation of six conserved cysteines in the formation of disulphide bridges, as in human RBP, and the similarity (about 60%) of the amino acid sequence of trout and mammalian RBPs, indicate the existence of a similar overall structure organization in evolutionary distant RBPs. 2. Although the two forms of trout RBP are not physiologically involved in the formation of any protein--protein complex in plasma, they are capable of interacting with mammalian transthyretin, albeit with a binding affinity (K'd = 15-40 microM) considerably lower than that of mammalian RBP. Our data indicate that the two forms of trout RBP also possess the region that in mammalian RBP has the functional role of binding transthyretin. It is suggested that transthyretin (or a homologous protein) was modified, during phylogenetic development of the non mammalian vertebrates, to acquire a binding site for such a region of the RBP molecule.     

Native disulfide bonds in plasma retinol-binding protein are not essential for all-trans-retinol-binding activity

A human plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP) mutant, named RBP-S, has been designed and produced in which the six native cysteine residues, involved in the formation of three disulfide bonds, have been replaced with serine. A hexa-histidine tag was also added to the C-terminus of RBP for ease of purification. The removal of the disulfide bonds led to a decrease in the affinity of RBP for all trans-retinol. Data indicates all-trans-retinol binds RBP and RBP-S with Kd = 4 x 10(-8) M and 1 x 10(-7) M, respectively, at approximately 20 degrees C. RBP-S has reduced stability as compared to natural RBP below pH 8.0 and at room temperature. Circular dichroism in the far-UV shows that there is a relaxation of the RBP structure upon the removal of its disulfide bonds. Circular dichroism in the near-UV shows that in the absence of the disulfide bonds, the optical activity of RBP is higher in the 310-330 nm than in the 280-290 nm range. This work suggests that the three native disulfide bonds aid in the folding of RBP but are not essential to produce a soluble, active protein.     

The bovine plasma retinol-binding protein. Amino acid sequence, interaction with transthyretin, crystallization and preliminary X-ray data

1. The primary structure of bovine plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP) has been determined and found to be more than 90% identical to human and rabbit RBPs, and more than 80% identical to rat RBP. Main changes in amino acid sequence are observed in two regions on the surface of the protein molecule (residues 138-148 and 169-183). 2. The interactions of bovine RBP with bovine and human transthyretins were investigated using the technique of fluorescence polarization. Bovine RBP was able to form high affinity complexes (K'd = 0.34 +/- 0.02 microM) with both bovine and human transthyretins, displaying a stoichiometry of approximately 2 molecules RBP/molecule transthyretin in both cases. The sites that participate in protein-protein interactions are thus very similar, and this tends to exclude the involvement of the superficial regions more significantly substituted in mammalian RBPs (residues 138-151 and 167-183) in the protein-protein recognition. 3. Bovine RBP has been crystallized (space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with a = 4.61 nm, b = 4.91 nm, c = 7.61 nm) and the crystals are suitable for high-resolution X-ray diffraction studies.     

The primary structure of piscine (Oncorhynchus mykiss) retinol-binding protein and a comparison with the three-dimensional structure of mammalian retinol-binding protein.

1. The primary structures of two variants of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP) were determined and found to be approximately 60% identical with those of both human and Xenopus laevis RBPs. The comparable sequence similarities that we have found agree with the estimate of similar divergence times between bony fishes and mammals and between bony fishes and amphibians. The two piscine RBP variants differ by six amino acid substitutions at positions that are not crucial for the interaction with retinol, on the basis of the human RBP three-dimensional structure [Cowan, S. W., Newcomer, M. E. & Jones, T. A. (1990) Proteins Struct. Func. Genet. 8, 44-61]. 2. Models were developed for the three-dimensional structures of rainbow trout and X. laevis RBPs, based on that of human RBP. The overall three-dimensional structure appears to be very well preserved for RBPs isolated from vertebrate species for which the divergence time is 350-400 million years. At variance with an almost absolute conservation for the residues that participate in the formation of the retinol binding site in mammalian RBPs, several amino acid replacements are found for this part of the RBP molecule when the comparison is extended to piscine and amphibian RBPs. However, the only allowed amino acid replacements are either conservative or more than 0.4 nm distant from retinol. Besides the retinol binding site, a few regions at the protein surface appear to be rather conserved during phylogenetic development of vertebrates and, therefore, might be involved in molecular interactions.     

Isolation,expression and characterization of carp retinol-binding protein

Vitamin A alcohol and its precursors carotenoids are introduced in the organism with the diet, transported to the liver and from there as retinol to target tissues by a specific carrier, the retinol-binding protein (RBP). RBP, isolated and characterized in many vertebrates, shows very high homology among the species investigated; however, very little is known in fish. In the present work RBP cDNA isolated from a carp liver library was transcribed and translated in vitro and the corresponding protein characterized. Carp RBP amino acid sequence and tertiary structure are highly conserved, but the protein shows two peculiar and unique characteristics: the signal sequence is not processed by the ER signal peptidase and two N-glycosylations are present at the N-terminus portion of the protein. It was also demonstrated that RBP glycosylation is not a feature common to all teleosts. Transfection experiments show that the green fluorescent protein (GFP) can be directed into the secretory pathway by the carp RBP N-terminal region, both in fish and in mammal cells, demonstrating that the sequence, although not processed, is recognized as a secretory signal in different species. Results obtained from different investigators indicated that in fish plasma RBP circulates without interacting with transthyretin (TTR) or other proteins, suggesting that the complex with TTR, whose postulated function is to hamper easy kidney filtration of circulating RBP, has evolved later in the evolutionary scale. This hypothesis is reinforced by the finding that carp RBP, as well as trout and other lower vertebrates in which circulating complex has never been demonstrated, lacks a short C-terminal sequence that seems to be involved in RBP-TTR interaction. In carp, carbohydrates could be involved in the control of protein filtration through the kidney glomeruli. Moreover, experiments of carp RBP expression in Cos-1 cells and in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae show that glycosylation is necessary for protein secretion; in particular, additional in vitro experiments have shown it is involved in protein translocation through ER membranes.     

gRNA/pre-mRNA annealing and RNA chaperone activities of RBP16

Editing in trypanosomes involves the addition or deletion of uridines at specific sites to produce translatable mitochondrial mRNAs. RBP16 is an accessory factor from Trypanosoma brucei that affects mitochondrial RNA editing in vivo and also stimulates editing in vitro. We report here experiments aimed at elucidating the biochemical activities of RBP16 involved in modulating RNA editing. In vitro RNA annealing assays demonstrate that RBP16 significantly stimulates the annealing of gRNAs to cognate pre-mRNAs. In addition, RBP16 also facilitates hybridization of partially complementary RNAs unrelated to the editing process. The RNA annealing activity of RBP16 is independent of its high-affinity binding to gRNA oligo(U) tails, consistent with the previously reported in vitro editing stimulatory properties of the protein. In vivo studies expressing recombinant RBP16 in mutant Escherichia coli strains demonstrate that RBP16 is an RNA chaperone and that in addition to RNA annealing activity, it contains RNA unwinding activity. Our data suggest that the mechanism by which RBP16 facilitates RNA editing involves its capacity to modulate RNA secondary structure and promote gRNA/pre-mRNA annealing.     

Involvement of SecB, a chaperone, in the export of ribose-binding protein.

Ribose-binding protein (RBP) is an exported protein of Escherichia coli that functions in the periplasm. The export of RBP involves the secretion machinery of the cell, consisting of a cytoplasmic protein, SecA, and the integral membrane translocation complex, including SecE and SecY. SecB protein, a chaperone known to mediate the export of some periplasmic and outer membrane proteins, was previously reported not to be involved in RBP translocation even though small amounts of in vitro complexes between SecB and RBP have been detected. In our investigation, it was shown that a dependence on SecB could be demonstrated under conditions in which export was compromised. Species of RBP which carry two mutations, one in the leader that blocks export and a second in the mature protein which partially suppresses the export defect, were shown to be affected by SecB for efficient translocation. Five different changes which suppress the effect of the signal sequence mutation -17LP are all located in the N domain of the tertiary structure of RBP. All species of RBP show similar interaction with SecB. Furthermore, a leaky mutation, -14AE, generated by site-specific mutagenesis causes reduced export in the absence of SecB. These results indicate that SecB can interact with RBP during secretion, although it is not absolutely required under normal circumstances.     

High-resolution structures of retinol-binding protein in complex with retinol: pH-induced protein structural changes in the crystal state

The targeted delivery of non-polar ligands by binding proteins to membranes or membrane receptors involves the release of these ligands on or near the plasma membrane of target cells. Because these hydrophobic ligands are often bound inside a deep cavity of binding proteins, as shown previously for plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP), their release from these proteins might require the destabilization of the protein structure by partially denaturing conditions, such as those possibly present near plasma membranes. RBP is a plasma transport protein which delivers specifically retinol from its store sites to target cells. Here, we report the high-resolution (1.1-1.4A) crystal structures of bovine holo-RBP at five different pH values, ranging from 9 to 2. While unraveling details of the native protein structure and of the interactions with retinol at nearly atomic resolution at neutral pH, this study provides evidence for definite pH-induced modifications of several structural features of RBP. The structure most representative of the changes that holo-RBP undergoes at different pH values is that of its flexible state at pH 2. At this pH, most significant are the alteration of the arrangement of salt bridges and of the network of water molecules/H-bonds that participates in the retinol-RBP interaction, an appreciable increase of the volume of the beta-barrel cavity, a considerably higher degree of mobility of the RBP-bound ligand and of several protein regions and the disorder of a large number of solvent molecules that are ordered at neutral pH. These changes are likely to be accompanied by a modification of the pattern of charge distribution on the protein surface. All these changes, which reveal a substantially lowered conformational stability of RBP, presumably occur at the initial stages of the acidic denaturation of RBP and are possibly associated with a facilitated release of the retinol molecule from its carrier protein.