Measurement of residual stress in the weld overlay piping components

In general industry, especially in the nuclear industry, welding overlay repair is an important repair method mainly used to rebuild piping systems suffering from intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC).The pipe surface is mechanically ground to obtain a smooth surface after the welding overlay repair. A better understanding of the effect of repair and grinding processes on the residual stresses at the surface of weld overlay is required. To obtain this understanding, it is necessary to measure directly the distribution of residual stresses on the specimen. It is expected that compressive residual stress should be induced at the inner wall surface of the pipe for prevention of IGSCC.The performance evaluation of welding overlay repair relies on whether or not the level and characteristic of the residual stress can be measured accurately. In this study, the hole-drilling strain-gage method, using the incremental drilling technique, was adopted to estimate the residual stresses on the inner and outer walls of the weld overlay pipe. The experimental results indicate that the residual stress at the pipe inner surface is compressive while that of the outer surface is tensile. Also, it is found that the depth affected by grinding is about 1.016 mm.     

Notch sensitivity in nanoscale metallic glass specimens: Insights from continuum simulations

Recent experiments have shown that nano-sized metallic glass (MG) specimens subjected to tensile loading exhibit increased ductility and work hardening. Failure occurs by necking as opposed to shear banding which is seen in bulk samples. Also, the necking is generally observed at shallow notches present on the specimen surface. In this work, continuum finite element analysis of tensile loading of nano-sized notched MG specimens is conducted using a thermodynamically consistent non-local plasticity model to clearly understand the deformation behavior from a mechanics perspective. It is found that plastic zone size in front of the notch attains a saturation level at the stage when a dominant shear band forms extending across the specimen. This size scales with an intrinsic material length associated with the interaction stress between flow defects. A transition in deformation behavior from quasi-brittle to ductile becomes possible when this critical plastic zone size is larger than the uncracked ligament length. These observations corroborate with atomistic simulations and experimental results.     

基于试验与有限元耦合技术的延性材料全程单轴本构关系获取方法

摘 要: 材料拉伸直至断裂的全程单轴本构关系对材料大变形和断裂机理研究具有重要意义。传统拉伸试验获取的材料真应力-真应变曲线在试样颈缩后不可测。借助可以精确测量三维变形的DIC(Digital image correlate) 技术和有限元分析技术(Finite element analysis),本文提出了基于漏斗试样拉伸试验获取材料全程单轴本构关系的新方法,即TF(Test and FEA)方法。该方法将TF方法获取的材料全程单轴应力应变关系曲线作为有限元软件中的材料本构关系对漏斗试样拉伸变形过程进行模拟,其模拟载荷-位移曲线、漏斗根部直径-位移曲线和漏斗变形轮廓线等均与试验结果吻合良好,试样表面模拟应变也与DIC测试结果吻合, 根据不同半径漏斗试样模拟获得的全程真应力-真应变曲线保持良好一致性。最后,还对试样颈缩断面的力学行为进行了讨论,并给出了304不锈钢、汽轮机叶片材料2Cr12Ni4Mo3VNBN和 1Gr12Ni3Mo2VN、汽轮机转子材料30Cr2Ni4MoV的全程单轴本构关系模型参数、破断应力和破断应变。     

Crack bifurcation in laminar ceramics having large compressive stress

Crack bifurcation is observed in laminar ceramics that contain large residual compressive stress. In such composites, alternating material layers have tensile and compressive residual stress, due to thermal expansion mismatch or other sources. The compressive stress ensures that crack growth leading to failure in the laminar system is mediated by threshold strength, but, in some cases, it also leads to bifurcation of the propagating flaw. The phenomenon of bifurcation takes place when the crack tip is propagating in the compressive layer, and occurs typically at a distance equal to a few laminate thicknesses below the free surface and beyond. The observation of this phenomenon is usually associated with the presence of edge cracking in the compressive layers of the laminar ceramic, although it can also occur in the absence of such edge cracks. In the few cases where bifurcation occurs without edge cracks, the residual stresses and layer thicknesses are close to the condition in which edge cracks will occur. In addition, in this case the bifurcation is confined to near the specimen free surface, and below the bifurcation plane, the cracks are straight. The energy release rates for the straight and bifurcated cracks are calculated from the results of finite element computations and compared. When edge cracking is ignored, the crack is simulated as a through-thickness crack in an infinite body, and the energy release rate is used to predict crack deviation and bifurcation. Based on this, the finite element model successfully predicts bifurcation in only one material combination that was investigated in experiments. However, the experimental bifurcation takes place in two additional material combinations. When the effect of edge cracking is incorporated into the finite element simulations, the energy release rate calculations successfully predict the phenomenon of bifurcation in three material combinations, as observed in the experiments. Since no edge cracks are present in the fourth material combination tested experimentally, its lack of bifurcations is automatically predicted by the model. The presence of edge cracking, or its incipience, is thus concluded to be critical to the occurrence of crack bifurcation in laminar ceramic composites.     

Surface Residual Stress Measurement Using Curvature Interferometry

Surface roughness plays an important role in the delamination wear caused by rough surface contact. A recent dislocation model analysis predicts that nano-scale contacts of surface steps induce nucleation of dislocations leading to pro-load and anti-load dislocation segregation near the contact surface. Such dislocation segregation generates a sub-layer of tensile residual stress in a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress near the surface. The tensile sub-layer thickness is expected to be about 50 to 100 times the step height. In order to verify the predictions of the model analysis, contact experiments are carried out on polycrystalline aluminum surface to determine the existence of the tensile sub-layer. The variation of the residual stress along the thickness direction is measured using a newly developed high sensitivity curvature-measurement interferometer. The residual stress distribution measured with sub-nanometer spatial resolution indicates that contact loading leads to formation of a highly stressed sub-layer of tensile residual stress within a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress. Implications of tensile residual stress for delamination wear are discussed.     

热障涂层弹性模量和残余应力测试研究

采用数字图像相关法实验研究了热喷涂制作的热障涂层的弹性模量和残余应力。首先,采用三点弯测试方法对热障涂层试件进行加载,并利用二维数字图像相关方法对热障涂层试件加装过程中的弯曲变形进行了精确的测量,进而获得了热障涂层在受拉和受压两种状态下的弹性模量,结果表明,受拉时热障涂层试件陶瓷层的弹性模量为31GPa,而受压时其弹性模量为34GPa。其次,基于内力平衡,推导了考虑曲率变化的涂层残余应力计算公式;利用三维数字图像相关法测量了喷涂前后基体曲率的变化,进而获得了涂层残余应力的大小,结果表明,热喷涂后的热障涂层残余应力为压应力,大小为-86^-70MPa。     

A quartz-crystal-embedded split Hopkinson pressure bar for soft materials

A dynamic experimental technique that is three orders of magnitude as sensitive in stress measurement as a conventional split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) has been developed. Experimental results show that this new method is effective and reliable for determining the dynamic compressive stress-strain responses of materials with low mechanical impedance and low compressive strengths, such as elastomeric materials and foams at high strain rates. The technique is based on a conventional SHPB. Instead of a surface strain gage mounted on the transmission bar, a piezoelectric force transducer was embedded in the middle of the transmission bar of a high-strength aluminum alloy to directly measure the weakly transmitted force profile from a soft specimen. In addition, a pulse-shape technique was used for increasing the rise time of the incident pulse to ensure stress equilibrium and homogeneous deformation in the low-impedance and low-strength specimen.     

残余应力测定的围箍压痕法模拟

本文从同工量测方法得到启发，提出了一种新型的残余应力测试方法－围箍压痕法。采用轴对称弹塑性有限元计算模拟了围箍压痕法测量结构残余应力的力学过程，得到了围箍压痕时不同残余应力程度下材料的变形，塑性区和接触应力分布。     

Crack-compliance method for assessing residual stress due to loading/unloading history: Numerical and experimental analysis

The understanding of how materials fail is still today a fundamental research problem for scientist and engineers. The main concern is the assessment of the necessary conditions to propagate a crack that will eventually lead to failure. Nevertheless, this kind of analysis tends to be more complicated, when a prior loading history in the material is taken into consideration and it will be extremely important to recognize all the factors involved in this process. In this work, a numerical simulation and experimental evaluation of the induction of residual stresses, which change the crack initiation conditions, in a modified compact tensile specimen is presented. Several analyses were carried out; an initial evaluation (numerical and experimental) was performed in a specimen without a crack and this was used for the estimation of a residual stress field produced by an overload; three more cases were simulated and a crack was introduced in each specimen (1 mm, 5 mm and 10 mm long, respectively). The overload was then applied to set up a residual stress field into the component; furthermore, in each case the Crack Compliance Method (CCM) was applied to measure the induced residual stress field. By performing this numerical simulation, the accuracy of the CCM can be evaluated and later corroborated by experimental procedure. On the other hand, elastic-plastic finite element analysis was utilized for the residual stress estimation. The analyses were based on the mechanical properties of a biocompatible material (AISI 316L). The obtained results provided significant data about diverse factors, like; the manner in which a residual stress field could modify the crack initiation conditions, the convenient set up for the induction of a beneficial residual stresses field, as well as useful information that can be applied for the experimental implementation in this research. Finally, some beneficial aspects of residual stresses are discussed.     

高温下轻质泡沫铝动态力学性能实验

对传统的分离式Hopkinson压杆装置加以改进,设计了一种长杆直接撞击Hopkinson杆的实验方案,检测出低波阻抗材料在高温动态加载下的应力均匀性。对轻质泡沫铝材料的实验表明,在同一撞击速度下,温度越高,试件两端的应力均匀性越差,增加温度与提高撞击速度均会导致泡沫铝材料冲击端与支撑端的应力不均匀性。根据高温下应力均匀性的实验结果,确定高温下试件均匀变形对应的冲击速度,再通过传统的分离式Hopkinson压杆实验得出泡沫铝在高温动态下的力学性能。     

Stress measurement of SS400 steel beam using the continuous indentation technique

An analytical model is presented for determining surface residual stress using continuous indentation. The elastic residual stress is assumed to have no influence on contact area or hardness and to be uniform over a volume that is several times larger than the indentation mark. A step-by-step analysis for the residual-stress-induced load difference at a given depth is outlined here and such concepts as stress interaction, stress-sensitive contact morphology, and reversible contact recoveries during a stress relaxation are described. Finally, the proposed method is applied to the interpretation of the continuous indentation results obtained from an SS400 steel beam in which controlled bending stresses are generated. The stress estimated, however, showed a high scatter due to plastic pile-up deformation. When the optically measured contact area is used as an alternative of the contact area calculated from the unloading curve, the re-evaluated stress agrees well with the already known applied stress.     

A Study on Hydraulic Autofrettage of Thick-Walled Cylinders Incorporating Bauschinger Effect

Pressure vessels which are subjected to cyclic external or internal high pressure are used in many fields of industry and need to be sure of reliability and safety. To ensure of reliability and safety, thick-walled cylinder, such as a cannon or nuclear reactor, is autofrettaged to induce advantageous residual stresses. The compressive residual stress which was introduced by autofrettage process acts to offset the tensile residual stress induced by internal pressure. It increases operating pressure and restrains crack initiation and crack propagation. As the autofrettage level increases, the magnitude of compressive residual stress at the bore also increases. However, the Bauschinger effect reduces the compressive residual stresses with prior tensile plastic strain, and decreases the beneficial autofrettage effect. There are some differences between theoretical solution considering elastic-perfectly material behavior and real autofrettage process results. The purpose of the present paper is to predict the accurate residual stress of SNCM 8 high strength steel using the Kendall model which was adopted by ASME Code. The tensile and uniaxial Bauschinger effect tests of SNCM 8 were performed to evaluate Bauschinger effect factor(BEF), thereafter this constant was used in calculating the residual stress. The residual stress distribution which is considering the Bauschinger effect was profiled using Kendall model, and the results were compared with the analytical and Finite Element analysis. The results were found that residual stress incorporating the Bauschinger effect at bore was smaller than ideal calculation. These results should be considered in designing pressure vessels.     

An experimental study of inhomogeneous cyclic plastic deformation of 1045 steel under multiaxial cyclic loading

An experimental study was conducted on the inhomogeneous cyclic plastic deformation of 1045 steel under multiaxial cyclic loading. Thin-walled tubular specimens were used and small strain gages were bonded on the specimen surface to characterize the local deformation. The controlled loading paths included cyclic tension–compression, cyclic torsion, proportional axial-torsion, 90°-out-of-phase axial-torsion, and fully reversed torsion with a constant axial stress. The maximum stress in each experiment was lower than the lower yield stress of the material. It was found that the cyclic plastic deformation within the gage section of the specimen under multiaxial stress state followed the three-stage process that was observed from uniaxial loading, namely, incubation, propagation, and saturation. The plastic deformation was significantly inhomogeneous during the propagation stage, and the inhomogeneity continued through the saturation stage. The duration of each stage and the saturated strains were dependent on the cyclic stress amplitude and the loading path. Multiaxial stress state reduced the incubation stage. With identical equivalent stress magnitude, the nonproportional loading path resulted in the shortest incubation and propagation stages, and the saturated equivalent plastic strain magnitude was the smallest. Although the deformation over the gage section was inhomogeneous, the plastic deformation in a given local area was found to be practically isotropic.     

建筑织物膜材双轴剪切试验与分析

为了研究建筑织物膜材的剪切力学性能,提出一种新的剪切测试方法。采用中心区域宽度和四臂长度均为16cm的十字形试件,试件纱线的经纬向与加载方向呈45°角。根据膜材变形和应力关系,推导了剪应力和剪应变的计算方法。定义了使试件中心区域产生三个循环剪应力场的加载谱,循环产生正负交替的剪切应力。试验采用表面抛光的(Polyvinylidene Fluoride,聚偏氟乙烯)涂层膜材,测量x、y两个方向的应力和应变,通过计算得到剪切应力应变曲线,并对试验结果进行分析。结果表明,新的剪切测试方法能够反映建筑织物膜材剪切力学性能。最后通过有限元方法模拟材料受剪状态下的应力和应变,与试验得到的应力值和应变值相近。     

激光冲击修复后压力容器钢Q345R耐腐蚀及抗疲劳性能研究

对激光冲击强化后的压力容器材料Q345R钢的耐腐蚀性能和抗疲劳性能进行研究。通过电化学实验,并结合扫描电子显微镜分析其耐腐蚀性。结果显示,有吸收层保护和无吸收层保护激光冲击后,相较于原试样,耐腐蚀性分别提升5.8倍和2.6倍;微观实验结果表明经过激光冲击后腐蚀试样表面裂纹明显少于未处理试样。但随着冲击次数增加,耐腐蚀性有所下降。疲劳试验结果显示,相同应力条件下,腐蚀1和2 h的疲劳寿命相较于原试样降低36.8%和56.4%,经过一次或三次激光冲击后试件的疲劳寿命分别提升43.8%和198.2%,经XRD检测,激光冲击能在表面形成一定深度的残余压应力层并抑制裂纹扩展。     

两种激光熔覆涂层对轮轨材料磨损与损伤性能的影响

选用钴基合金粉末和铁基合金粉末，利用CO₂多模激光器对轮轨材料进行激光熔覆处理. 分析了钴基合金涂层和铁基合金涂层的微观组织、成分、硬度与应力状态. 未处理试样表面残余应力为拉应力，激光熔覆处理后，涂层表面残余应力为压应力. 利用MJP-30A滚动接触疲劳试验机对激光熔覆处理前后轮轨试样进行滚动摩擦磨损试验. 结果表明:激光熔覆处理后轮轨试样磨损率明显降低，其中激光熔覆钴基合金后，轮轨试样磨损率分别降低96.7%和98.9%，激光熔覆铁基合金后，轮轨试样磨损率分别降低81.7%和93.5%. 未处理轮轨试样表面损伤为疲劳损伤；钴基合金涂层表面损伤最轻微，磨痕表面光滑，出现轻微的小块剥落；铁基合金涂层表面出现细小裂纹和犁沟.      

Application of digital image correlation to the study of planar anisotropy of sheet metals at large strains

The aim of this work is to measure and model the planar anisotropy of thin steel sheets. The experimental data have been collected using the digital image correlation technique. This is a powerful tool to measure the strain field on differently shaped specimens subjected to large plastic deformations. In this manner, it is possible to observe the material behaviour under different stress-strain states, from small to large deformation conditions, on the entire specimen surface. The experimental results on smooth and notched samples have been used to characterize the flow stress curve after necking and a nonassociated plastic flow rule is proposed to describe the anisotropic behaviour of the material. To compare the experimental data with the predictions of the adopted constitutive model, a novel method, based on the image correlation results, has been implemented.     

Hybrid experimental-numerical concept of residual stress analysis in laser weldments

The concept, methodology and instrumentation for hybrid experimental-numerical residual stress analysis in a laser weldment are presented. Grating interferometry and digital speckle photography are applied as complementary experimental methods for the determination of the initial model of residual strains and of the material properties at the various zones of a laser weldment. These data inserted into a finite element model enable one to analyze the formation of the residual stress state of the object, which is compared and modified by means of experimental data in a closed iterative loop. This full hybrid approach is tested successfully on a laser-welded steel specimen in uniaxial tensile tests.