Optical techniques for on-line measurement of surface topography

Optical techniques have great potential for non-destructive and on-line measurements of surface roughness during manufacturing. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art in a number of optical techniques including specular reflectance, total integrated scatter, diffuseness, angular scattering distributions, speckle, ellipsometry, and interferometry. The distinction is drawn between the more quantitative but slower profiling techniques and less quantitative, parametric techniques, which are faster and hence more useful for high-speed monitoring of surfaces. Overall, no currently available technique combines accuracy and speed and is therefore suitable as an on-line metrological tool for roughness measurement of engineering surfaces. Speckle techniques hold perhaps the greatest potential as accurate, high-speed metrological tools     

三维表面粗糙度的表征和应用

表面粗糙度会直接影响零部件的耐磨性、密封性以及抗腐蚀性等,是评定机械加工和产品质量的重要指标。现代科技水平的不断提高对零件表面性能的要求也日益严苛。传统的二维表面粗糙度的测量和表征已经不再能够满足技术发展的要求,三维表面粗糙度由于能够更加全面、真实地反映工件表面的状态而受到人们的重视,成为研究热点。本文回顾了三维表面粗糙度的发展历史,系统地介绍了三维表面粗糙度参数及标准的发展现状,分析了表面形貌与功能特性的联系,概述了三维粗糙度参数在制造业、生物医疗、摩擦学与材料科学等领域的广泛应用,并进一步指出了三维表面粗糙度表征和应用的发展方向。未来随着相关研究(比如,三维测量的溯源性、重复性、参数表征体系等问题)的深入以及三维表面测量手段的发展,三维表面粗糙度参数也将不断完善和推广,并更多地与实际功能相结合来预测并指导生产,确保工件的表面质量。     

Concepts and Limitations of Using Optical Profilometry for Air Bearing Simulations of Hard Disk Sliders

The topography of hard disk sliders is commonly measured with optical profilometers that produce a regularly spaced matrix of topography data corresponding to the pixel array of the CCD camera. This paper explores a new concept that combines optical profilometry and air bearing simulations to achieve an accurate method for predicting fly height early in the manufacturing process. Various sources of error in the topography measurement are analyzed with regards to their impact on the accuracy of air bearing simulations. The findings are illustrated by a feasibility study based on numerical simulations of a slider with a negative pressure air bearing design.     

Scanning tunneling microscopy-based on-machine measurement for diamond fly cutting of micro-structured surfaces

This paper presents a new on-machine measuring system based on scanning tunneling microscope principle, in order to meet the demand for precision form control of fabricated micro-structures. It is compactly established and mounted on a diamond turning machine, capable of on-machine measuring microstructures with steep slopes and size of tens of micrometers, which remains a challenge task to accomplish undistorted measurement even for general off-line metrological methods. Fly cutting with V-tip fly-cutter was first applied in two directions with interval angle of 60° to form the crossed micro V-grooves, and then efficient on-machine measurement was carried out to characterize the machined surface form without ending the proceeding of the subsequent fabrication. By depth compensation of fly cutting in 120° direction through feedback of on-machine measured results, the surface of rectangular pyramid array with diamond-shaped feature was successfully generated. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed measuring system is of significance in the fabrication process, owing to its efficient on-machine characterization capability for generating accurate micro-structured surfaces.     

The NANOMEFOS non-contact measurement machine for freeform optics

Aspherical and freeform optics are applied to reduce geometrical aberrations as well as to reduce the required number of components, the size and the weight of the system. To measure these optical components with nanometre level uncertainty is a challenge. The NANOMEFOS machine was developed to provide suitable metrology (high accuracy, universal, non-contact, large measurement volume and short measurement time) for use during manufacturing of these surfaces. This paper describes the design, realization and testing of this machine. In particular it describes the design and testing of the air-bearing motion system with parallel stage configuration, and the separate metrology system with Silicon Carbide metrology frame and an interferometry system for direct displacement measurement of the optical probe. Preliminary validation measurements demonstrate the nanometer level repeatability for freeform surface measurement.     

A Comparative Study on the Three-Dimensional Surface Topography for the Polished Surface of Femoral Head

Several surface topographic techniques have been widely used in many manufacturing engineering fields for studying the surface characteristics for the practical application of manufacturing surfaces. In this paper, a polished surface of a femoral head is considered for the compatative study, where the stylusbased technique, the autofocused optical measurement technique, the interferometric technique, and scanning probe microscopy are applied. After the operational principles are introduced, some practical comparative measurements are reported for the polished surface. Some useful comparisons and conclusions are drawn from the comparative study. General guidelines for the 3D surface topography are also given for practical application.     

Repetitive Measurement and Compensation to Improve Workpiece Machining Accuracy

Achieving workpiece high accuracy at low cost is one of the greatest challenges in the manufacturing industry. A repetitive error measurement and compensation scheme to improve the workpiece diameter accuracy for machining centres is des-cribed. The scheme entails an on-machine measurement and error compensation technology between machining processes. The workpiece diameters are measured along the workpiece length by using a fine touch sensor. The workpiece diameters in the compensation program are modified for implementation of next pass error correction. The technology is realised on a CNC turning centre. This method works well in hard machining and turned workpieces with large length–diameter ratios where the machining process induced errors are significantly greater than errors from other sources. It demonstrates that the work-piece can obtain maximum possible machining accuracy by this repetitive measurement and compensation technique.     

大口径光学元件高精度平面磨床加工系统研究

以实现高精度、高效率、高自动化程度加工为目的,基于高精度平面磨床MGK7160的加工系统,详细分析了加工规划控制、计算机辅助制造软件系统开发、砂轮修整及动平衡、在位测量等关键配套工艺技术。在已有设备及配套工艺基础上利用400#粒度金刚石圆弧砂轮,实现口径400mm×400mm平面光学元件的加工,获得了较好的加工精度,验证了机床及加工技术系统的可靠性。     

A new laser measurement system for precision metrology

Laser measurement systems, based on optical heterodyne interferometry, have been a valuable tool for precision metrology for almost two decades. During this period measurement requirements have steadily increased without an accompanying improvement in system capabilities. This paper describes a new laser head, electronics and interferometers that satisfy present needs and have the attributes to meet future requirements.     

拼接干涉技术在同步辐射领域的发展现状及趋势

针对同步辐射领域光学元件的口径逐渐增大,其面形测量精度的要求已达到纳弧度级的问题,本文研究了该领域先进的面形测量方法——拼接干涉技术,以实现光学元件的高分辨率二维测量。介绍了拼接干涉技术的基本原理,综述了目前同步辐射光学领域常用的面形测量设备——激光光束长程面形仪、高精度自准直纳米测量仪,以及拼接干涉仪的发展历程和特点,比较了它们各自的缺点和优势。最后,分析了拼接干涉涉及的主要误差来源,指出该技术的应用和发展趋势主要有拼接算法的创新,干涉仪测量的快速化,拼接干涉仪的商业化,以及拼接干涉技术与其他科学技术的融合等。     

波长轮换与相移扫描相结合的表面形貌测量系统

用光学显微干涉法进行表面形貌测量时其深度测量范围的扩大和形貌测量精度的提高是一对矛盾。为此,本文设计出了一种基于波长轮换与相移扫描相结合的三波长表面形貌测量系统,并提出了一种基于椭圆拟合与相位差大小尺度相结合的相位提取与识别算法。将这种算法运用于多波长干涉图像的数据处理,有效地提高了形貌的整体测量精度,并拓展了深度测量范围。实验结果表明:在深度测量范围扩大近15倍的条件下,采用粗糙度国家基准校准的方波多刻线样板得到的表面粗糙度数据与校准数据的相对误差仅为4.12%,表明该系统在一定的深度范围内能够实现表面形貌的高精度测量。另外,针对该系统设计的多波长相位识别算法对环境噪声要求不高,可以支持系统的高噪声或在线测量。     

Vibration-resistant interference microscope with assistant focusing for on-machine measurement of surface topography

The interference microscope is a powerful tool for surface topography measurement, but its high sensitivity to vibration hinders its application to on-machine use. To measure surface roughness on a machine for the ultra-precision machining, a vibration-resistant interference microscope (VRIM) with an assistant focusing function is developed. The basic principle of VRIM is an error-compensated phase-shifting interferometry. An iterative algorithm is presented to calculate the surface phase with the phase shift amounts as unknown variables, where the phase shift amounts are calculated and compensated with least-squares method. A narrow bandwidth illumination is employed to alleviate coherence envelop influence, and a simplified intensity model is established to decouple the variables. Assisting the microscope to find fringe quickly, the focusing is realized by introducing an off-axis thin beam to generate two spots, of which their relative position relates to the defocus. The focusing method is directional and determinant, and has a large range up to 0.3 mm. In the vibration disturbances of 0.2 μm and 0.4 μm amplitudes over 0 Hz to 20 Hz frequency region, the roughness accuracy and repeatability of measuring an ultra-precision machined surface are both up to the sub-nanometer level. The developed instrument is applied to a single-point diamond turning machine and achieves a sub-nanometer accuracy and repeatability.     

A comparison of digital holographic microscopy and on-axis phase-shifting interferometry for surface profiling

This paper presents a quantitative comparison between off-axis digital holographic microscopy (DHM) and on-axis phase-shifting interferometry (PSI) for surface micro topography measurement. The comparison has been applied on an object of a 1.34 μm nominal step height. The experimental results show that single shot, dual-wavelength, off-axis DHM surpasses on dual-wavelength, on-axis PSI in terms of accuracy and repeatability.     

A differential laser autocollimation probe for on-machine measurement

An optical probe based on the principle of differential laser autocollimation has been developed for the purpose of on-machine measurement of mirror shapes. The probe is so compact that it can be mounted on diamond lathes. It can be rotated by a stepping motor about an axis perpendicular to the optical axis of measurement, and has been used to measure mirror shapes on an apparatus that imitates the conditions of an on-machine measurement system. The probe can reduce remarkably the measurement errors due to vibrational and thermal noises that could not be avoided previously in on-machine measurement. Estimating from repeatability, accuracy is better than 0.1 μm in measurement of a parabolic curve whose depth is >1 mm and length is ≈ 100 mm.     

Determination of film thickness and surface profile using reflectometry and spectrally resolved phase shifting interferometry

Surface profiling and film thickness measurement play an important role for inspection in semi conductor industry. White light source had been used as scanning white light interferometry and spectrally resolved white light interferometry for determining surface and film thickness profile. These techniques however failed for thinner film. Recently, reflectometry and spectrally resolved white light interferometry was combined for the same. This technique used Fourier Transform for the calculation of phase in spectral domain with the use of Linnik interferometer. In this method a large amount of carrier offset (carrier fringes) is required to be effective. This carrier fringes in spectrally resolved white light interferometry was achieved by increasing the optical path difference between the test and the reference surface. But, Linnik interferometer cause defocusing problem to create these carrier fringes. We propose in this paper to combine reflectometry and spectrally resolved phase shifting interferometry for measurement of surface and film thickness profile with the use of Michelson objective. Michelson objective will be convenient to implement as compared to the Linnik type and the use of phase shifting interferometry does not necessarily need large number of fringes in the spectral domain.     

一种基于自动对焦的非球面测量系统

影响高精度非球面磨削加工精度的不仅是机床、刀具和数控技术等参数,而且取决于制造系统所采用的测试手段和所能达到的测量精度.针对非球面制造系统的测量特点,将光栅测量技术和光学显微镜自动对焦技术引入环节,进而提高对非球面工件的测量精度,解决了制约非球面加工精度提高的测量问题.     

A swing-arm on-machine inspection method for profile measurement of large optical surface in lapping process

Generally, the optical components are fabricated by grinding, lapping, and polishing.And, those processes take long time to obtain such a high surface quality. Therefore, in the case of large optical component, the on-machine inspection (OMI) is essential. Because, the work piece is fragile and difficult to set up for fabricating and measuring. This paper is concerned about a swing-arm method for measuring surface profile oflarge optical concave mirror. The measuring accuracy and uncertainty for suggested method are studied. The experimental results show that this method is useful specially in lapping process with the accuracy of 3–5 μm. Those inspection data are provided for correcting the residual figuring error in lapping or polishing processes.     

纳米精度在位测量系统测头误差校正方法

针对超精密机床两轴联动接触式在位测量过程中测头误差影响测量精度的问题,提出了一种测头半径误差及形状误差校正方法。进行了在位测量实验,比较分析了测头误差未校正、测头半径误差校正及测头形状误差校正三种情况的测量结果,并分别与Taylor Hobson PGI840离线测量结果进行对比,以验证测头形状误差校正方法的有效性。测头形状误差校正后,面形精度PV值由420nm变为370nm,与离线测量PV值380nm的差值为10nm。结果表明,该在位测量系统测头误差校正方法有效,能够提高在位测量精度。     

A swing arm method for profile measurement of large optical concave surfaces in the lapping process

Generally, optical components are fabricated by grinding, lapping, and polishing. Usually, these processes take a long time to obtain high surface quality. Therefore, in the case of large optical components, on-machine inspection (OMI) is essential, because the workpiece is fragile and difficult to set up for fabricating and measuring. This paper describes a swing arm method for measuring the surface profile of large optical concave mirrors. The measuring accuracy and uncertainty for the method are studied. Experimental results show that this method is especially useful in the lapping process, where an accuracy of 3–5 μm is obtained. Inspection data is also provided to correct the residual figuring error in lapping or polishing processes .     

Optimal design of electrode cooling system for resistance spot welding with the response surface method

In the last decade, the progress of surface metrology has led to improved 3D characterisation of surfaces, offering the possibility of monitoring manufacturing operations and providing highly detailed information regarding the machine tool condition. This paper presents a case study where areal surface characterisation is used to monitor tool wear in peripheral milling. Due to the fact that tool wear has a direct effect on the machined workpiece surface, the machined surface topography contains much information concerning the machining conditions, including the tool wear state. By analysing the often subtle changes in the surface topography, one can highlight the tool wear state. This paper utilises areal surface characterization, areal auto-correlation function (AACF) and pattern analysis to illustrate the effect of tool wear on the workpiece surface. The result shows the following: (1) tool wear, previously difficult to detect, will influence almost all of the areal surface parameters; (2) the pattern features of AACF spectrum can reflect the subtle surface texture variation with increasing tool wear. The authors consider that, combined analysis of the surface roughness and its AACF spectrum are a good choice for monitoring the tool wear state especially with the latest developments in on-machine surface metrology.