Application of Taguchi-based gray relational analysis for evaluating the optimal laser cladding parameters for AISI1040 steel plane surface

The effect of various laser cladding process parameters like laser power, scan speed, and powder feed rate on clad bead quality characteristics (or clad bead geometry) for AISI 1040 steel substrate have been studied by performing a number of experiments with L ₉ orthogonal array. In order to find the process parametric setting for best quality clad bead based on experimental results, a multiresponse optimization technique using gray relational analysis (GRA) is presented in this paper. The GRA is applied on laser cladding process to find out the gray relational grade for each experiment. On optimization, power of 1.25 kW, scan speed of 0.8 m/min, and a powder feed rate of 11 gm/min have been found to be the best parametric setting for laser cladding operation of AISI 1040 steel substrate. Moreover, the analysis of variance is also performed to determine the contribution of each control factor on the clad quality characteristics. Finally, to ensure the robustness of GRA, a confirmatory test is performed at selected optimal parametric setting.     

Application of artificial neural network for the prediction of laser cladding process characteristics at Taguchi-based optimized condition

This paper presents an investigation on the optimization of multiple performance characteristics during CO₂ laser cladding process considering clad width and clad depth as performance characteristics. This optimization for multiple quality characteristics has been done using Taguchi’s quality loss function. The process model for laser cladding operation using various techniques like artificial neural network (ANN) has rarely been found in the literature review. In the present work, a number of experiments have been performed to establish the interrelationship between process variables and response variables using the back propagation method of ANN. The essential input process parameters are identified as laser power, scan speed of work table, and powder feed rate. Moreover, the analysis of variance is also employed to determine the contribution of each control parameter on clad bead quality. In order to validate the predicted result, an experiment as confirmatory test is carried out at the optimized cladding condition. It is observed that the confirmatory experimental result is showing a good agreement with the predicted one. However, it has been found that the optimum condition of the cladding parameters for multi-performance characteristics varies with the different combinations of weighting factors.     

An analytical model of the laser clad geometry

In this paper an analytical approach to the laser cladding process has been developed and discussed. This approach has taken into account the process speed and feed rate of the powder being supplied for the estimation of clad geometry. The surface tension between the added material and the substrate is used primarily for the calculation of the clad characteristics. The theoretical results are discussed and compared with experimental data. The model is capable of predicting the clad width and depth with reasonable accuracy at low and medium process speeds.     

激光熔覆WC-Ni基金属陶瓷涂层的几何形貌特征

通过送粉式激光熔覆系统将WC-Ni基金属陶瓷粉末熔覆到45钢和铸铁基体上,观察其熔覆层的几何形貌特征。结果表明:以45钢为基体的金属陶瓷涂层,在功率变化很大的范围内其几何形貌特征良好;而以铸铁为基体的金属陶瓷涂层其几何形貌特征有缺陷,并分析了造成缺陷的原因。同时,将多元线性回归分析方法应用于激光熔覆层高度的预测。     

Powder transport model for laser cladding by lateral powder feeding: I. Powder flow field with cylindrical distribution

Powder transport ratio is defined as the mass ratio of powder particles fed into the molten pool to all powders transported in the process of laser cladding by lateral powder feeding. According to the law of mass conservation and kinematic equation in physics, a powder transport model for flow field with cylindrical distribution and a mathematical expression of powder transport ratio are proposed. For different process parameters, the cross-sectional area of the clad layer is calculated by the model. Theoretical and experimental results are compared. The variation tendency of the theoretical cross-sectional area agrees well with the experimental results. The results indicate that the powder transport model can be used for fundamental research of real powder flow field.     

激光熔覆与激光-感应复合熔覆WC-Ni60A涂层的结构与性能特征

对单纯激光熔覆与激光-感应复合熔覆Ni60A+35%WC涂层的几何外形、稀释率、WC颗粒分布、显微组织与抗干滑动磨损性能进行对比分析。结果表明,单纯激光熔覆的最大激光扫描速度与最大送粉量仅为600 mm.min–1与25 g.min–1,当激光-感应复合熔覆采用相同的工艺参数时,复合熔覆层的宽度、热影响区、稀释率均大于单纯激光熔覆层,厚度却小于单纯激光熔覆层,WC颗粒与析出的碳化物不均匀地分布于复合熔覆层内,复合熔覆层的抗干滑动磨损性能比单纯激光熔覆层的差。但是,激光-感应复合熔覆的最大激光扫描速度可以提高到2 200 mm.min–1,最大送粉量可以提高到75.6 g.min–1,加工效率是单纯激光熔覆的3倍多,复合熔覆层内WC颗粒分布均匀,经检测无裂纹且稀释率仅为5.2%,抗干滑动磨损性能约是单纯激光熔覆层的1.42倍。     

Erosion wear behavior of laser clad surfaces of low carbon austenitic steel

Austenitic steel surfaces are laser cladded using a 4 kW continuous wave CO₂ laser with coaxial powder feeding nozzle to investigate the improvement in slurry erosion characteristics. Colmonoy-6 and Inconel-625 are cladded on AISI 316L steel and AISI 304L steel, respectively by laser cladding. Initially, single-pass clad track is overlaid to optimize the laser processing parameters, namely scanning speed and powder feed rate to obtained a sound clad. Minimum cracks, porosity and distortion were found at scanning speed of 0.1 m/min and powder feed rate of 12 g/min. For these parameters, the dilution was 17.33% for Colmonoy-6 and 40% for Inconel-625. To clad large surface area, the optimized laser processing parameters were used to deposit the clad tracks with 60% overlap. Maximum surface hardness of 746 VHN is obtained in case of Colmonoy-6 clad on AISI 316L steel and is 352 VHN in case of Inconel-625 clad on AISI 304L steel. EDAX analysis shows higher degree of mixing of substrate material in the clad pool of Inconel-625 than Colmonoy-6. The results of slurry erosion test of Colmonoy-6 clad surface have shown improvement in erosion resistance of the order of 1.75–4.5 times of the substrate AISI 316L steel at all impact angles and the maximum wear angle has also increased which can be attributed to the increase in the surface hardness. However, Inconel-625 laser clad surface has shown little improvement in erosion resistance of the substrate AISI 304L steel at shallow impact angles with no significant improvement at normal impact condition. The SEM micrographs of worn out Colmonoy-6 clad surfaces at shallow impact angles show that the material is removed mainly by micro-cutting which increases with increase in the impact angle.     

同轴送粉激光熔覆件质量影响因素的研究

介绍了同轴送粉激光熔覆的工艺过程以及激光与金属粉末的作用机理,分析了影响熔覆件质量的主要因素。建立了粉末对激光能量的吸收表达式和稀释率的表达式,提出从材料特性和工艺参数方面改善熔覆件质量的途径。最后对同轴送粉激光熔覆成形研究中急需解决的关键问题进行了展望。     

Microstructure and sliding wear behaviour of Tribaloy T-800 coatings deposited by laser cladding

This work has focused on the obtainment of Tribaloy T-800 coatings by laser cladding on plane 18/8 stainless steel specimens (AISI 304). The appropriate selection of cladding parameters allowed defect-free coatings to be obtained with minimal dilution. In order to evaluate their microstructure, cross-sections of the coatings were examined by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The elemental composition of the coatings was determined using an optical emission spectrometer with an excitation source (GDOES) and phase analysis was performed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Several zones can be distinguished in the microstructure of the clad layer: a planar crystallization region at the interface with the substrate, followed by cellular and dendrite crystallization from the interface to the surface of the laser track and an overlap zone between tracks which is characterised by the coarsening of the structure and the formation of a lamellar eutectic phase. The mechanical properties were evaluated by hardness measurements and sliding wear tests (ball-on-disk and block-on-ring configurations) at room temperature and without lubrication. It was observed the great hardness (close to 850 HV_0.3) achieved for the Tribaloy 800 laser coatings, which presented a wear coefficient (k) between one and two orders of magnitude lower than the substrate. The analysis of the clad worn surfaces showed that there was a transition from an adhesive-oxidational mechanism to a more severe plastic deformation and crack formation wear process with increasing the applied load.     

增材制造成形方向对冲蚀磨损性能的影响*

增材制造的零部件由于逐层制造而具有各向异性,为研究成形方向对冲蚀磨损性能的影响,采用激光同轴送粉工艺制备逐层堆积的铁基合金熔覆层,并对其显微硬度、金相组织、微观组织及冲蚀后表面形貌进行分析。水平表面(XY)、横截面(YZ)和纵截面(XZ)的显微观察表明:各方向的微观组织结构与热流方向、熔合线密切相关,进而显著影响了细晶区的分布和数量;堆积熔覆层水平上表面的平均显微硬度最大,横截面的平均显微硬度次之,纵截面的平均显微硬度最低;由于冲蚀过程中的加工硬化,弱化了各成形方向之间冲蚀磨损性能的差异,进而导致各成形方向上相似的冲蚀磨损形貌。冲蚀磨损试验表明,堆积熔覆层的冲蚀机制以微切削和犁削为主,堆积熔覆层水平表面的抗冲蚀磨损性能最好,纵截面的抗冲蚀磨损性能最差。     

激光熔覆成形金属薄壁结构的试验研究

试验研究了较低功率的激光熔覆成形金属薄壁结构及其影响因素。成形金属薄壁结构的能力对零件薄壁部位的成形和小型零件的制造十分重要。由于传统的激光表面处理工艺观念的影响、对激光单道熔覆成形薄壁结构过程及其规律的认识不够,目前成形薄壁结构的能力较差。试验研究了用与表面处理工艺不同的、功率和光斑尺寸较小的CO2激光进行单道熔覆成形薄壁试样,试验结果表明较低功率、较小光斑的激光与适当的扫描速度、送粉速度等配合可以得到壁厚最小为0.4 mm的薄壁结构。激光单道熔覆的壁厚与工艺参数和工件高度有关,粉末流与激光束之间的同轴度和送粉速度的稳定性等因素也影响薄壁结构的成形。     

Imperfections in laser clading with powder and wire fillers

Laser cladding has been increasing in laser job shops both for component repair and manufacture. The process is quite mature nowadays, from a scientific approach, but companies need manufacturing guidelines and procedures to minimise the occurrence of defects and improve service quality and productivity. Typical imperfections occurring in laser clads can be divided into two major groups: shape and microstructural defects. The first group includes the contact angle of the clad track with the substrate surface and the total height of the clad including penetration. In the second group are considered lack of fusion, porosity and cracks. It is not clear to which extent the use of powder or wire as filler materials influence defect formation, though it is well known that these are mostly related to material properties and operational procedures. This paper presents the work done in laser cladding using filler wire and powder in real productive environment in job shop cases on different substrates: AISI 316 stainless steel, H13 and P20 tool steels. An overview of the defects that are more prone to appear in these materials is presented and strategies to minimise their occurrence proposed.     

Si对铸铁激光熔敷层抗裂性的影响

通过控制熔敷层内Si质量分数,进而控制奥氏体相与渗碳体相体积分数来抑制熔敷层裂纹的产生。在抗裂性最佳激光熔敷工艺参数基础上,首次系统地在不预热情况下研究了冶金元素Si对熔敷层奥氏体体积分数及表面裂纹率的影响,揭示了熔敷层开裂的微观机制。最终得到可显著降低熔敷层开裂敏感性的新激光熔敷材料。     

激光熔覆层形貌尺寸预测研究

激光熔覆过程中工艺参数对熔覆层形貌有很大影响,利用多元线性回归分析确定了主要工艺参数(激光功率、扫描速度、送粉速率)和熔覆层形貌(熔覆层高度、宽度)之间的对应关系。     

Effect of laser beam incidence angle on cladding morphology in laser cladding process

The change of angle θ between laser cladding powder plane and substrate plane will lead to changes in cladding layer's geometric morphology. Therefore, we established a quantitative numerical prediction model for cladding layer geometry. In this model, we consider the variation of θ, the laser energy attenuation rate and the temperature rise of the powder particles. At the same time, the simulation results were verified by experiments. The results show that when θ is in the range of 50°~90°, the initial temperature is 298 K, the scanning speed is 3.75 mm/s, and the laser spot diameter is 4.5 mm, the Fe#1 powder cladding can achieve better forming effect on Q235. In general, with the decrease of θ, the height of the cladding layer decreases and the width of the layer increases. However, when θ is less than 50°, the quality of the formed morphology significantly deteriorated. The experimental results are in good agreement with the simulation results, which verifies the validity and reliability of the model. This work provides a theoretical reference for further understanding the relationship between the laser cladding morphology and the incident angle.     

送粉激光熔覆界面特性及熔覆层稀释率

通过调整扫描速度、送粉速率、熔覆材料颗粒度进行单道送粉激光熔覆试验 ,借助显微组织分析、扫描电子显微分析、透射电子显微分析 ,研究了工艺参数对送粉式激光熔覆层与基体间结合界面形态及界面附近组织结构的影响规律 :工艺参数对熔覆层稀释率的影响作用 ,提出熔覆层界面附近局部稀释率的概念     

65Mn钢表面激光熔覆温度场模拟及性能研究

为了探究不同激光熔覆工艺参数对温度场的影响,利用ANSYS软件对激光熔覆温度场进行模拟。在选定工艺参数下,通过激光熔覆技术在65Mn钢表面熔覆Ni60A合金粉,并与镍基焊条电弧焊试验进行对比。对两种熔覆层的显微组织、显微硬度及摩擦磨损性能进行观察和测试。结果表明：激光熔覆温度场的最高温度与激光功率、频率成正比,而与扫描速度成反比。在激光功率580 W,扫描速度100 mm/min,频率4 Hz,脉宽8 ms的工况下,温度场最高温度达到2 092.1℃。激光熔覆层主要由等轴晶、柱状晶组成,而电弧焊覆层组织的晶粒组织粗大,存有大量树枝晶。激光熔覆层晶粒更加致密,组织均匀,强度、塑韧性性能更好。在硬度与耐磨性方面,激光熔覆层硬度平均值为531.24 HV_0.2,电弧焊熔覆层硬度平均值为492.46HV_0.2,且激光熔覆对硬度的提高效果更加显著。激光熔覆层的磨损率为4.9×10^-4 mm³·N^-1·m^-1,是基体的3/5。磨损机理由严重的粘着磨损转变为轻微的磨粒磨...     

激光能量密度对CrFeCoNiNb熔覆层组织演变和性能影响的试验研究

采用预置粉末法在42CrMo基体表面制备CrFeCoNiNb高熵合金激光熔覆层,探索激光能量密度对CrFeCoNiNb熔覆层组织和性能的影响规律。对于预置粉末激光熔覆工艺,激光功率、扫描速度、光斑直径作为工艺参数三要素,不是独立影响熔覆层质量与性能,且激光功率对熔覆层质量与性能的影响最大。通过改变激光功率进而改变作用于熔覆层的激光能量密度,研究激光能量密度对CrFeCoNiNb高熵合金熔覆层硬度、耐磨性和耐腐蚀性的影响规律。试验结果表明：熔覆层主相为面心立方结构相(FCC相)和密排六方结构相(Laves相)。随着激光能量密度的增加,其衍射峰面积先减少后增加,熔覆层晶粒先细化后粗化,转折点处的激光能量密度都为116.7 J/mm²。而且,此时熔覆层物相分布更均匀,磨损形貌主要为光滑的犁沟,相应的减摩效果好,磨损率有所降低。主相含量的改变和晶粒尺寸的改变分别是影响熔覆层平均显微硬度和耐腐蚀性的主要因素。Laves硬质相的增加有利于熔覆层硬度的提高,细化的晶粒可以形成致密的钝化膜,有利于提高熔覆层耐腐蚀性。     

双面超薄不锈钢复合板激光焊接接头组织及耐腐蚀性能

采用同步送粉填充焊的方法,利用Nd:YAG固体脉冲激光对0.1mm+0.8mm+0.1mm不锈钢复合板进行了双面焊双面成形的实验研究。确定了激光焊接双面超薄不锈钢复合板的最佳工艺参数,利用金相显微镜观察分析了焊缝区各区的微观组织特征。结果表明,双面超薄不锈钢复合板填充粉末后激光焊接接头表面成形好,热影响区窄,焊接变形小;焊缝中心为细小的等轴晶,熔合线附近有细晶区,其他区域为柱状晶区,焊缝为残余奥氏体+马氏体+碳化物组织;在硫酸-硫酸铜腐蚀溶液中腐蚀16h后,焊缝表面与腐蚀前没有明显变化,对试板进行180°弯曲试验,未产生晶间腐蚀裂纹。     

Application of 3-D finite element method using Lagrangian formulation to dilution control in laser cladding process

In this study a three-dimensional finite element model is presented for precisely simulating laser cladding process with a focus on dilution control. Dilution is referred to as an important quality index in the laser cladding process, indicating the contamination level of the properties of clad layer by substrate metals. As regards a good quality of laser clad layer, low dilution as well as metallurgical bond of interface are prerequisite, so the dilution control is essential in the process. Unfortunately despite of its importance, to date, any practically usable computation techniques have not been reported, which is a motivation of this work. In the paper, proposing a simulation procedure, we develop and verify a code of finite element method with Lagrangian view-point. Following the procedure, the dilution control is precisely estimated. The effects of process parameters on the dilution of clad layer are quantitatively discussed by the numerical and experimental means.