Olive oil authentication: A comparative analysis of regulatory frameworks with especial emphasis on quality and authenticity indices,and recent analytical techniques developed for their assessment. A review

Over the last decades, olive oil quality and authenticity control has become an issue of great importance to consumers, suppliers, retailers, and regulators in both traditional and emerging olive oil producing countries, mainly due to the increasing worldwide popularity and the trade globalization of this product. Thus, in order to ensure olive oil authentication, various national and international laws and regulations have been adopted, although some of them are actually causing an enormous debate about the risk that they can represent for the harmonization of international olive oil trade standards. Within this context, this review was designed to provide a critical overview and comparative analysis of selected regulatory frameworks for olive oil authentication, with special emphasis on the quality and purity criteria considered by these regulation systems, their thresholds and the analytical methods employed for monitoring them. To complete the general overview, recent analytical advances to overcome drawbacks and limitations of the official methods to evaluate olive oil quality and to determine possible adulterations were reviewed. Furthermore, the latest trends on analytical approaches to assess the olive oil geographical and varietal origin traceability were also examined.     

Extra virgin olive oil: A comprehensive review of efforts to ensure its authenticity,traceability, and safety

The growing demand for extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), appreciated for its unique organoleptic properties and health benefits, has led to various fraudulent practices to maximize profits, including dilution with lower value edible oils. The adulterated oils would be of poor nutritional quality, more readily oxidized, and may contain unhealthy substances formed during processing. Nevertheless, the range of available techniques to detect fraud in EVOO production has been growing. Reliable markers of EVOO adulteration include fatty acids and minor components such as sterols, tocopherols, triterpene alcohols, phenolic compounds, phospholipids, volatile compounds, and pigments. Additionally, increasing consumer interest in high-quality EVOO has led to the development of robust scientific methods for its traceability. This review focuses on (i) the usefulness of certain compounds as markers of EVOO adulteration; (ii) the potential health risks of consuming adulterated EVOO; and (iii) reliable methods for the geographical traceability of olive oil. In conclusion, fraudulent production practices need to be detected to preserve the beneficial health effects of EVOO and to avoid the potential risks associated with ingesting substandard oil. In this work, as EVOO certification and regulatory framework limitations have already been extensively reviewed, we focus our attention on biomarkers that guarantee both the authenticity and traceability of oil, and consequently its health properties. When it is unavailable to obtain a high-resolution mass spectrometry full fingerprint, stigmastadienes and the sterolic profile are proposed as reliable markers.     

稳定同位素技术在蜂蜜真实性溯源中的研究进展

蜂蜜作为一种纯天然的食品,因丰富的营养价值以及良好的保健功效而深受消费者喜爱。然而,随着近年来蜂蜜消费量的不断增多,蜂蜜掺假、以次充好等现象日益严重。因此,蜂蜜的真实性溯源研究也变得更为迫切。稳定同位素技术是食品真实性溯源的有效的技术之一,在蜂蜜的真实性溯源研究方面也有较多成果。本文综述了稳定同位素技术在蜂蜜掺假、产地鉴别、品种识别方面的研究进展并分析该技术的优点与不足,为进一步推进蜂蜜的真实性溯源研究提供参考。     

DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY DETECTION OF HIGH OLEIC SUNFLOWER OIL AS AN ADULTERANT IN EXTRA-VIRGIN OLIVE OIL

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was employed to detect high oleic sunflower oil (HOSo) as an adulterant in extra-virgin olive oil (EVOo) by means of cooling and heating thermograms. Addition of HOSo did not significantly alter cooling profiles of EVOo except for onset temperature of crystallization, which was significantly shifted toward lower temperature at 40% of adulterant addition. At the same percentage of adulteration, the heating profile of EVOo was significantly changed as the major endotherm broadened and the minor event became smaller and less evident. Cooling thermograms of pure oils and their admixtures were deconvoluted into three constituent exothermic peaks in an attempt to detect addition of HOSo at levels lower than 40%. Thermal properties of the two lower-temperature exotherms (area percentage, offset temperature and range of transition) were significantly changed at ≥ 20% of HOSo substitution, suggesting that DSC can be employed to detect this oil as an EVOo adulterant.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Adulteration of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOo) with cheaper oils from other vegetable sources or seeds, as well as with lower quality olive oils, is a serious concern for oil suppliers and consumers and requires the use of new analytical techniques for their detection. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) exhibits some advantages over the classical analytical methods as it does not require sample preparation and use of solvents, thus resulting in a reduced environmental impact. Results suggested that its application to the detection of EVOo adulteration with high oleic sunflower oil, a vegetable oil largely employed for this type of fraud, is promising with the support of the deconvolution analysis of cooling thermograms.     

茶油掺伪检测技术研究进展

茶油是我国特有的高端木本食用植物油。本文分析了茶油品质特点与茶油的主要掺伪方式,总结现有相关标准中对茶油真实性的要求。从茶油及其他异质油的理化特性与特征成分出发,重点总结了基于理化参数的分析技术、色谱与质谱技术以及光谱学技术3个用于茶油掺伪检测技术的特点与局限性。说明了基于多个理化参数集合并结合算法模型、筛选茶油特异性成分、扩大样品的光谱数据库对茶油掺伪检测方法构建的重要性,并提出采用多指标逐步判别分析是实现茶油掺伪实际检测的重要途径。     

A SNP-based PCR–RFLP capillary electrophoresis analysis for the identification of the varietal origin of olive oils

Authenticity and traceability of high quality monovarietal extra virgin olive oils is a major concern for markets and consumers. Although analytical chemistry techniques are widely used to satisfy these needs recently developed DNA-based methods can serve as complementary approaches. A SNP database comprising 10 Greek olive varieties was constructed and five SNPs, residing in restriction sites, were selected for the development of a PCR–RFLP capillary electrophoresis method to discriminate these varieties using leaf DNA as template. An identification key was constructed indicating that five SNPs were adequate to discriminate nine out of the 10 varieties. As a proof of principle the assay was applied on DNA extracted from five of their corresponding monovarietal olive oils. Three SNPs were able to identify the varietal origin of these olive oils confirming the validity of this approach.     

Applicability of SSR markers to the traceability of monovarietal olive oils

BACKGROUND: To protect the features and authenticity of food products, the European Commission enforces two certification labels: Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). EEC Regulation No. 510/2006 imposes criteria for labelling, production and commercialisation of olive oil. Since plant genotype is a major determinant in establishing the PDO and PGI labels, methods to ascertain the varieties present in a batch of olive oil are essential in validating product conformity. The traceability of olive oil can be assessed through simple sequence repeat (SSR) co‐dominant markers targeted to specific regions of DNA from olive cultivars. RESULTS: Twenty‐one monovarietal olive oils were analysed with nine nuclear and two shortened SSRs. For each marker the correspondence of allelic profile with the reference cultivar, the reproducibility of profiles in different DNA extractions and the polymorphism information content were determined. CONCLUSION: The results showed that using a panel of SSR markers such as those described in this paper allows one to make a reliable attribution of an olive oil to a specific cultivar. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

畜禽肉中源成分检测技术研究进展

近年来,畜禽肉掺假问题严重侵害消费者权益,引发公众对食品安全的担忧及市场监管部门的关注.禽畜肉溯源分析和鉴别技术成为食品领域研究热点,畜禽肉中的源成分是用于区分鉴定不同物种的定性成分,在肉制品质量检测及肉制品真实性鉴别方面应用广泛.本文针对目前定性及定量检测禽畜肉中源成分的检测技术,主要包括基于蛋白质的检测技术、基于脂...     

枸杞子掺伪检测方法的研究进展

枸杞子以其药用价值和营养品质深受消费者的青睐,广泛应用于食品和保健品行业。但是市场上枸杞子恶意掺杂、掺假现象日益严重,此行为严重影响枸杞子品质、危害消费者健康、损害消费者权益、扰乱市场正常秩序,如何正确鉴别枸杞子真伪成为广大消费者普遍关注的问题。本文对枸杞子的主要掺伪现象进行了综述,并介绍了性状鉴别、显微鉴别、化学成分分析鉴别、分子生物学技术鉴别和基于红外光谱、近红外光谱和拉曼光谱法、机器视觉和电子舌等技术的快速检测方法在枸杞子品种和产地掺伪检测中的应用情况,对不同检测方法的优缺点进行对比分析。通过对枸杞子掺伪主要检测方法的比较,为市场监督枸杞子的品质提供理论基础和研究依据。     

Authentication technologies using DNA-based approaches for meats and halal meats determination

Food authenticity and safety are major concerns for researchers, consumers, and particularly the meat industry. Meat products are targets for species substitution and adulteration due to their market value. Presently, the demand for halal products is witnessing a substantial increase. Therefore, it is essential to use appropriate science-based methods for determining the species origin of halal meat. DNA barcoding is a useful technique for the molecular identification of biological specimens, and raw and processed foods. The potential of using DNA barcoding is increasingly applied as an authentication tool for halal animal and meat products. Our review will bring together all DNA-based techniques that have been developed for the authenticity of meat derived from halal and non-halal animals and also their derivatives. Additionally, the present paper will highlight the possibility of using the DNA barcoding approach for halal meat authenticity.     

食用油掺伪鉴别技术及模型建立的研究进展

随着食用油掺伪频繁出现,掺伪物质复杂多样,基于传统的理化检测已无法准确实现食用油复杂掺假组分的分析。因此有必要利用现代分析技术手段结合相关数据计量学处理方法建立快速、精准、高效的食用油掺伪鉴别方法。本文综述了色谱分析、光谱分析及新型分析技术手段对食用油掺伪的检测,对借助化学计量学方法基于食用油组成成分种类及含量差异性而建立的掺伪模型原理及模型的应用进展进行了概述,并对目前食用油掺伪模型的建立方法提出展望,以期为食用油掺伪鉴别模型的建立提供理论参考。     

Review of the use of phytosterols as a detection tool for adulteration of olive oil with hazelnut oil

Adulteration of virgin olive oil with less expensive oils such as hazelnut oil is a serious problem for quality control of olive oil. Detection of the presence of hazelnut oil in olive oil at low percentages (<20%) is limited with current official standard methods. In this review, various classes of phytosterols in these two oils are assessed as possible markers to detect adulterated olive oil. The composition of 4-desmethyl- and 4-monomethylsterols is similar in both oils, but the 4,4′-dimethylsterols differ. Lupeol and an unknown (lupane skeleton) compound from 4,4′-dimethylsterols are exclusively present in hazelnut oil and can be used as markers via GC–MS monitoring to detect adulteration at levels as low as 2%. The phytosterol classes need to be separated and enriched by a preparative method prior to analysis by GC or GC/MS; these SPE and TLC methods are also described in this review.     

Authentication of Olive Oil Adulterated with Vegetable Oils Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Determination of the authenticity of extra virgin olive oils has become more important in recent years following some infamous adulteration and contamination scandals. The study focused on application of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to identify the adulteration of olive oils. Single-bounce attenuated total reflectance measurements were made on pure olive oil and olive oil samples adulterated with varying concentrations of sunflower oil (20-100 mL vegetable oil/L of olive oil). Discriminant analysis using 12 principal components was able to classify the samples as pure and adulterated olive oils based on their spectra. A partial least squares model was developed and used to verify the concentrations of the adulterant. Furthermore, the discriminant analysis method was used to classify olive oil samples as distinct from other vegetable oils based on their infrared spectra.     

Traceability in the Indian dairy industry: Concept and practice

The rise in milk adulteration and contamination, fraud incidents and improper handling necessitates effective traceability systems in the Indian dairy industry. Thus, this review investigates current trends, associated challenges, traceability and its fundamental applications to address food safety and quality issues. The paper covers the evolution of milk adulteration and contamination detection techniques from conventional to emerging. Such information and analytical technologies can improve transparency and safety in the dairy industry by implementing effective traceability systems. This review will explore the challenges and future opportunities associated with the current situation in the Indian dairy industry.     

Implementation of physicochemical and sensory analysis in conjunction with multivariate analysis towards assessing olive oil authentication/adulteration

The authenticity of products labeled as olive oils, and in particular as virgin olive oils, stands for a very important issue both in terms of its health and commercial aspects. In view of the continuously increasing interest in virgin olive oil therapeutic properties, the traditional methods of characterization and physical and sensory analysis were further enriched with more advanced and sophisticated methods such as HPLC-MS, HPLC-GC/C/IRMS, RPLC-GC, DEPT, and CSIA among others. The results of both traditional and "novel" methods were treated both by means of classical multivariate analysis (cluster, principal component, correspondence, canonical, and discriminant) and artificial intelligence methods showing that nowadays the adulteration of virgin olive oil with seed oil is detectable at very low percentages, sometimes even at less than 1%. Furthermore, the detection of geographical origin of olive oil is equally feasible and much more accurate in countries like Italy and Spain where databases of physical/chemical properties exist. However, this geographical origin classification can also be accomplished in the absence of such databases provided that an adequate number of oil samples are used and the parameters studied have "discriminating power."     

Application of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for the quality and safety analysis of fats and oils: A review

Abstract

Fats and oils are essential food components. Their quality and safety pose major concerns for consumers and food producers because of factors such as oxidation and rancidity, excessive levels of trans fatty acid (TFA), and widespread adulteration. Thus, a rapid and easy-to-use technique must be exploited for quality parameter evaluation and monitoring to ensure the edibility, safety, and quality of fats and oils. In the last decades, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has shown great potential in analyzing fats and oils given its speed and simplicity. FTIR-based analytical techniques for common intrinsic quality parameters, including peroxide value, free fatty acid, moisture, TFA, iodine value, as well as oxidation stability, adulteration, and classification of various fats and oils, are summarized in this review. The advantages and disadvantages of selected infrared spectral accessories and sample preparation and spectral processing methods are highlighted. The prospects and reformative aspects for future application of the FTIR technique in the field of fats and oils are also discussed. This review may serve as a basis for applying FTIR not only in future research but also in the fat and oil industries.     

食用油中掺入低价动物油脂鉴别方法的研究进展

动物油脂是动物脂肪组织经提取精炼而成的油脂。动物油脂因资源丰富,具有独特风味,广泛应用于食用油、起酥油、制备肉味香精,同时也是生产肥皂、甘油和饲料的重要原料。因动物油脂成本低廉,不法商贩受利益驱使在食用植物油或高价动物油脂中掺加低价动物油脂,严重扰乱了市场秩序,侵害消费者合法权益和身体健康。近年来,近红外光谱法与拉曼光谱等光谱法、气相色谱与液相色谱及其质谱联用技术、实时分析质谱、低场核磁共振等技术应用于动物油脂掺假鉴别技术研究。本文对主要动物油脂掺假鉴别技术进行综述,并对其发展趋势进行了综述,以期为动物油脂的掺假鉴别技术研究提供参考。     

稳定同位素、矿质元素及可见-近红外光谱技术在禽制品真实性鉴别中的应用研究进展

禽制品在食品消费中占据很大比例,近年来,禽制品掺假、造假等事件频发,禽制品真实性鉴别成为研究热点。随着掺假造假手段的多样化,传统的感官鉴别方法已经难以满足禽制品真实性鉴别的需要。近年来,现代分析仪器和技术发展迅速,现代分析方法在禽制品真实性检测中展现出优势。本文重点阐述稳定同位素技术、矿质元素指纹技术及可见-近红外光谱技术在禽制品真实性鉴别中的应用与发展趋势,旨在为我国禽制品真实性鉴别研究提供参考。     

Implementation of quality control methods (physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory) in conjunction with multivariate analysis towards fish authenticity

Nowadays authenticity of foods and fish in particular has become of crucial importance because of high number of adulteration cases. Authenticity control has gained ground thanks to the development of several rapid physico‐chemical and microbiological methods aiming at distinguishing one species from another based on solid scientific evidence. It has been proven that despite the precision and accuracy of robust analytical and protein and DNA‐based techniques, detection of authenticity could not be claimed without resorting to multivariate analysis. This review summarizes both the most advanced and state of the art used techniques for detecting fish and seafood authenticity (both in terms of species and geographical origin). Another issue reported in this review is the preservation of fish and seafood through the implementation of old and novel techniques (ice, modified atmosphere packaging). Several informative tables were included in this paper referring to the employed quality control and sensory analysis methods and multivariate analysis for fish and seafood.     

反向传播神经网络算法结合拉曼荧光光谱法定量检测特级初榨橄榄油掺假

目的 建立基于反向传播神经网络算法结合拉曼荧光光谱技术定量检测低等级橄榄油掺假特级初榨橄榄油的分析方法。方法 制备11种不同掺伪浓度的特级初榨橄榄油混合油样各10份，在相同时间、空间及目标的前提下，使用同台光谱探测系统，采集样品的拉曼光谱和荧光光谱。经过卷积神经网络去除拉曼光谱的基线，实现拉曼光谱和荧光光谱的数据预处理。根据分子光谱与电子光谱的特征差异，人为干预并设定拉曼光谱的权重，建立低等级橄榄油掺假特级初榨橄榄油的反向传播神经网络回归模型。结果 综合评估了反向传播神经网络回归模型的评价参数，特级初榨橄榄油掺假的反向传播神经网络模型的测试集决定系数为0.9716，均方根误差为0.0569，模型预测效果较好。结论 本研究提出的反向传播神经网络算法结合拉曼光谱与荧光的探测方法，满足快速检测低等级橄榄油掺假特级初榨橄榄油的定量分析需求，为评价或跟踪特级初榨橄榄油的品质提供了一种无损伤、高效率、低成本的新检测思路。