Odour–taste interactions: A way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions

This study investigated odour–saltiness interactions in aqueous solutions. In a first experiment, 81 consumers indicated expected taste attributes for 86 labels of flavour related to common food items. Panellists were able to rate expected saltiness of food flavour evoked by food written items. Differences in expected saltiness were observed in relation to actual salt content of food. In experiment 2, we selected commercially available aromas corresponding to 14 of the salt-associated flavour labels found in experiment 1. Odour-induced saltiness enhancement was investigated for odours evoked by these aroma water solutions containing or not sodium chloride. Fifty-nine consumers rated odour and taste (bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and sweetness) intensity orthonasally and retronasally. Results showed that expected flavours could induce saltiness and enhance saltiness in solutions containing a low level of sodium chloride through odour-induced changes in taste perception. These results suggest that well selected odours could be used to compensate sodium chloride reduction in food.     

Food and salt structure design for salt reducing

Salt plays an important role in food processing and consumption. High salt intake increases the health risks especially the cardiovascular diseases. The growing demand of the consumer towards healthier foods serves as a driving force for the research and development of salt-reduced food products both by the academia and the industry. Since salt addition has a fundamental effect on the processing characteristics, sensory quality and shelf life of foods, the achievement of salt reduction is a great challenge. This article introduces the principles of salt reduction in food products, particularly from the view point of modifying salt and food structure. The size, morphology, and spatial structure of salt crystals were introduced. The relationship between salt reduction and structural characteristics of food matrix in baked foods, emulsion-based products and cheese products was discussed. Non-cubic and agglomerated salt crystals with a smaller particle size result in a greater saltiness perception. Salt with a hollow structure improves its availability to taste receptors, leading to the same desired taste at a lower salt content. Salt reduction is achieved through the inhomogeneous spatial distribution of salt in the food matrix. The multilayer structure in bread enhanced the saltiness perception intensity. Double emulsions due to the dissolved salt in both of the internal and external phases enhanced sensory perception of saltiness compared to a single emulsion. A looser and more porous microstructure of the cheese matrix facilitates the release of salt while a higher gel strength limits the release of salt in cheese.     

AGAR AND GELATIN GEL FLAVOR RELEASE

The taste suppression and rupture properties of 0.8-2.0% w/w agar gel and 3.0-6.5% w/w gelatin gel were studied by sensory evaluation and objective measurement. Flavor compound concentrations were determined to equalize the intensity of aspartame sweetness (0.02% w/w for both agar and gelatin gels), sodium chloride saltiness (0.9% w/w for agar gel and 0.2% w/w for gelatin gel), and caffeine bitterness (0.08% w/w for agar gel and 0.07% w/w for gelatin gel) in 1% w/w agar gel and 4.5% w/w gelatin gel. The coefficient of taste intensity = (concentration of flavor compound in the aqueous solution of equiintense taste in gel)/(concentration of flavor compound in gel) was used to compare the difference in gel taste suppression. The coefficient of saltiness intensity of 3.0% w/w gelatin gel exceeded 1.0, and those of other gels were below 1.0. The suppressed variation of the coefficient of saltiness intensity in agar gel was significantly (P<0.01) smaller than that of bitterness depending on agar concentration. No significant differences (P>0.05) in taste suppression between gelatin gels containing the 3 flavor compounds due to changes in gelatin concentration were observed. Rupture energy, which is related to mastication and is a common scale for agar and gelatin gels, was used to evaluate changes in suppression of the coefficient of taste intensities of the 2 gels. The coefficient of bitterness intensity of agar gels was more significantly (P<0.01) suppressed than sweetness and saltiness intensities of gelatin gels. The coefficient of sweetness intensity of gelatin gels was suppressed significantly less than bitterness (P < 0.05) of gelatin gels and sweetness (P < 0.05) and bitterness (P < 0.01) of agar gels.     

Fat and salt contents affect the in-mouth temporal sodium release and saltiness perception of chicken sausages

In cooked meats, sodium chloride is involved in taste, texture and flavour release. So a reduction in the salt content may have an impact on overall perception and acceptability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of composition on sodium release and saltiness intensity in chicken sausages. The rheological properties of the sausages differed according to composition. Temporal sodium release and temporal saltiness intensity were evaluated by four selected subjects when eating sausages. At each time point, the effect of the salt level in sausages on sodium release was positive and highly significant. The effect of lipids on sodium release was negative. Concerning perception, the amount of salt used had a positive effect on saltiness intensity, and lipids seemed to exert a masking effect. Generally, clear relationships between salt levels, sodium release and saltiness intensity were found but the masking effect of lipids on saltiness intensity probably also involved texture or fat perception mechanisms.     

Increasing saltiness perception through perceptual constancy created by expectation

Reducing salt levels in food products is an important motivation for research, as the general intake of salt by consumers is too high. Finding strategies for salt reduction, while maintaining salty taste of products remains a big challenge. In this paper we show the effect that a perceptual expectation of a taste can have on subsequent taste perception, in the same product. A perceptual expectation is based on previous experience, memory, or other information from the product. Our hypothesis is that, if a product looks the same, smells the same and has the same texture as the product one is used to eat, small variations in taste will go unnoticed. In a consumer study, we investigated if the expectation, or implicit assumption, that saltiness remains constant across mouthfuls, can indeed reduce the perception of variation in salt concentration. We were able to demonstrate the existence of such an effect. We found that perceptual expectation, based on the first bite, can influence saltiness perception.     

On the Effect of Tastant Excluded Fillers on Sweetness and Saltiness of a Model Food

ABSTRACT: In this study, the effect on taste due to the addition of air bubbles to a water-based gel was investigated. The gel phase contained either sucrose to give a sweet taste or sodium chloride to give a salty taste. For the sweet gels, taste intensities were evaluated for samples with different volume fractions of the air bubbles (up to 40%, v/v) and different concentrations of the sucrose. For the salty gels, samples were evaluated at 40% volume fraction of air bubbles. It was found that a reduction of the sodium chloride or sucrose by the same weight percentage as the volume fraction of the air bubbles in the samples gave equal taste perception as the nontastant-reduced samples. Moreover, saltiness and sweetness perception were clearly enhanced at 40% volume fractions of air bubbles if the sodium chloride or sucrose was not reduced. Thus, the overall tastes of the samples appeared to depend mainly on the concentration levels of the salt or the sucrose in the aqueous phase irrespective of the volume fraction of the air bubbles. However, the air bubbles were found to change the texture and appearance of the samples. It has been demonstrated that the inclusion of air bubbles offers scope for the reduction of sodium chloride or sucrose in food products.     

Serum release boosts sweetness intensity in gels

This paper describes the effect of serum release on sweetness intensity in mixed whey protein isolate/gellan gum gels. The impact of gellan gum and sugar concentration on microstructure, permeability, serum release and large deformation properties of the gels was determined. With increasing gellan gum concentration the size of the pores present in the protein network, the permeability and the serum release increased, as well as the Young's modulus, the fracture stress and the fracture strain. Increasing the sugar concentration induced an increase of the pore size, but resulted in a decrease of permeability and serum release. The addition of sugar resulted in gels with a higher Young's modulus and a lower fracture strain. This effect was more evident at higher gellan gum concentrations. By changing the protein concentration of the gels, a set of samples was prepared exhibiting constant large deformation properties but varying in serum release and sugar concentration. Serum release significantly boosted sweetness intensity. For example, the sweetness scores for gels with 12% serum release were the same as for gels with 2% serum release but 30% higher sugar concentration. The results indicate that serum release is a tool to compensate for the loss taste intensity related to the reduction of sugar and salt in gelled foods.     

Ham Particle Size Influences Saltiness Perception in Flans

One major issue of the food industry is reducing sodium content while maintaining food acceptability and liking. Despite extensive research in this field, little has been published on real complex food products. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the size of particles, a parameter easily adjusted in food processing, could influence the salty taste of low‐salt food product. We thus evaluated the effect of ham particle sizes (4 levels, including a zero level) on salt perception and the consumer liking of flans varying in their overall salt concentrations (low‐ and high‐salt content). Two consumer panels, composed of 107 and 77 subjects, rated, respectively, the saltiness of and liking for the developed flans (8 samples). The outcomes of this study indicated first, that the addition of ham to flans increased the salty taste perception and second, that a decrease in ham particle size (ground ham) increased the perceived saltiness. Moreover, low‐ and high‐salt flans were equally liked, demonstrating that food manufacturers could reduce the salt contents (here, by over 15%) while maintaining consumer acceptability through the manipulation of the size of the salt‐providing particles.     

Aroma–taste interactions between a model cheese aroma and five basic tastes in solution

The flavour perception of cheese results from complex sensory interactions between tastes and aromas. Using a model cheese solution, this study investigated perceived interactions between each of five basic tastes and a cheese aroma mixture containing ten volatile compounds commonly found in cheese. The five tastes – sucrose (sweetness), sodium chloride (NaCl) (saltiness), monosodium glutamate (MSG) (umami), lactic acid (sourness), and caffeine (bitterness) – were individually mixed with cheese aroma in water using a 5 taste level (0.2 log series) by 3 aroma level (0.5 log series) design. Aroma controls with no added taste were also included. This resulted in 18 samples for each single taste–aroma combination. An additional 18 samples were produced using a mixture of all 5 tastes with the 3 aroma levels. A panel of trained assessors (n = 10) evaluated cheese flavour intensity and taste intensity using 100 point line scales. Evaluation was carried out in duplicate, with samples grouped by taste type; 1 evaluation session per taste per replicate. Within type, order of presentation was balanced, and taste type order was randomised between replicates. Cheese flavour intensity was enhanced by sucrose and NaCl, while being suppressed by lactic acid. NaCl enhanced cheese flavour intensity the most at high aroma level, while lactic acid suppressed the most at low aroma level. When MSG level was increased, cheese flavour intensity was enhanced at both low and medium aroma levels, but was suppressed at the high aroma level. The greatest enhancement of cheese flavour intensity was found with the mixture of 5 tastes. Aroma significantly enhanced umami and bitterness, but did not enhance sweetness, saltiness, or sourness. This study showed that the perceived interaction between taste and cheese aroma depended on taste type and on the concentration levels of both taste type and aroma. The mixture of tastes was more effective at enhancing cheese flavour intensity than single tastes. This study provides knowledge that will underpin further study of taste–aroma interactions in a model cheese that aims to optimise cheese flavour intensity and character.     

酵母抽提物减盐功能及在高汤调味粉中应用研究

本文以几款酵母抽提物（YE）为主要原料,探究其减盐功能及在高汤调味粉中减盐应用效果。通过开展不同YE理化指标检测、咸味强度对比感官分析,确定减盐效果最佳YE;然后对其肽分子量分布检测,不同肽段在复配减盐模型溶液应用,探究减盐机制;最后在高汤粉调味料验证减盐效果。结果表明,不同酵母抽提物减盐效果以及对低钠盐的风味修饰作用存在差异,其中浓厚YE-2在模型实验中减盐20%效果强于其他几款测试YE;浓厚YE-2中1000~2000 Da肽段的成分明显具有浓厚感和咸味提升效果;将浓厚YE-2应用在高汤粉调味料中具有协助减盐、增强鲜味和浓厚味、提升整体协调感的作用。提升YE-2产品中1000~2000 Da肽段的含量,可以开发具有更强减盐效果的YE产品。     

Fat, Protein, and Mineral Components of Added Ingredients Affect Flavor Qualities of Tomato Soups

Ten tomato soups were prepared with deionized, distilled water, skim or whole milk, or deionized, distilled water with added fat (corn oil), protein (calcium caseinate), and/or minerals (NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂) to equal the composition of whole milk. Tomato soups prepared with whole or skim milk were perceived as sweetest by a sensory panel of 12 trained subjects. Salt taste was probably masked by sweetness from lactose in milk. Added minerals may have increased saltiness either by adding to total Na⁺ content or by freeing Na⁺ from other ingredients making it more available for perception. Saltiness was suppressed by added protein, which increased pH, and may have affected Na⁺ binding. Salt taste intensity correlated positively with tomato flavor.     

香气增甜的作用机制及评价方法研究进展

食品减糖比较常见的方法是使用非营养性甜味剂,但非营养性甜味剂会带来不受欢迎的苦味或金属味及安全风险。研究表明,在某些食物中加入香气物质可以增强人体对食品的甜味感知,即利用香气增甜作用达到食品减糖效果。从气味物质种类、甜味剂浓度2个方面总结了对香气增甜作用有重要影响的因素;从正鼻途径和后鼻途径的嗅觉感受机制、脑神经及味觉感受机制、心理感受机制3个方面阐述了香气增甜的作用机制,总结了分子模拟在分析甜味剂与味觉受体结合、释放过程的应用;归纳了评价香气增甜作用大小的感官分析方法,并比较描述性感官分析法、时间强度法和感觉时间支配分析法3种感官分析方法的差异性;对香气增甜作用在食品工业中的应用现状进行了汇总;对香气增甜研究方向以及分析气味增强味觉作用机制的方法提出展望,以期为香气减糖的研究提供新思路。     

不同颜色大蒜品质分析

以打破休眠期的大蒜为原料,制备白色、绿色和黄色3种颜色大蒜,对其总酚含量、还原糖含量、自由基清除率、风味及味道进行测定,探究不同颜色大蒜的营养价值、抗氧化能力及感官品质的差异。结果表明,不同颜色大蒜的营养价值、抗氧化能力及感官品质存在显著差异。新鲜白色大蒜中含有较多总酚,绿蒜次之,黄蒜中最少。还原糖含量恰恰相反,黄色大蒜含量最高。不同颜色大蒜都具有较好的清除自由基能力,清除自由基能力强弱为新鲜白色大蒜>绿色大蒜>黄色大蒜。风味分析中,氮氧化合物(W5S)和硫化物(W1W)的感应器具有明显响应值变化,且响应值大小排序为黄色大蒜>绿色大蒜>新鲜白色大蒜。而味觉上,咸味、甜味、酸味、苦味上存在明显差异。绿色和黄色大蒜保持较好酸味,同时甜度下降。新鲜白色大蒜可以较好维持咸味和苦味。     

(Not to be taken) with a grain of salt: Enhancing perceived saltiness by 3D-printed surface textures

Seeking to promote healthy food options through design, this study investigates whether food saltiness perception can be enhanced through the design of the surface texture of the container from which the product is sampled, using 3D-printing. An experimental study was conducted at a supermarket in which shoppers (N = 270) participated in a taste test. A full-factorial 3 (surface texture: smooth, rough, rough and irregular) × 3 (salt content: low, medium and high salt content) between-subject design was employed. Participants in each condition were asked to try the product and assess saltiness perception, taste intensity, taste liking and willingness to try. Results testify to the feasibility of enhancing saltiness impressions through both rough and irregular 3D-printed surface textures, but only for the medium-salt and high-salt variants. Findings on taste liking and willingness to try likewise testify to the importance of considering the interaction between surface texture and saltiness. These findings qualify previous research on cross-modal correspondences by showing that applications of surface textures may backfire when the gap between expectations triggered by tactile sensations and actual food contents becomes too large. Implications for initiatives aimed at promoting healthy food choices are discussed.     

Effect of background noise on food perception

We investigated the effects of auditory background noise on the perception of gustatory food properties (sugar level, salt level), food crunchiness and food liking. Participants blindly consumed different foods whilst passively listening to either no sound, or quiet or loud background white noise. The foods were then rated in terms of sweetness, saltiness and liking (Experiment 1) or in terms of overall flavour, crunchiness and liking (Experiment 2). Reported sweetness and saltiness was significantly lower in the loud compared to the quiet sound conditions (Experiment 1), but crunchiness was reported to be more intense (Experiment 2). This suggests that food properties unrelated to sound (sweetness, saltiness) and those conveyed via auditory channels (crunchiness) are differentially affected by background noise. A relationship between ratings of the liking of background noise and ratings of the liking of the food was also found (Experiment 2). We conclude that background sound unrelated to food diminishes gustatory food properties (saltiness, sweetness) which is suggestive of a cross-modal contrasting or attentional effect, whilst enhancing food crunchiness.     

Physical and sensory properties of regional sea salts

Seven varieties of sea salt and a Kosher control were characterized by composition, various physical properties and rates of dissolution in artificial saliva. These measures were compared to sensory time–intensity data in which the temporal profile of salt taste of the sea salt crystals was measured by a trained panel (n = 12). Salts contained either the same or less sodium than the Kosher salt. Three salts contained similar sodium contents as the Kosher control while True Kona contained the lowest sodium content with 16.75% less sodium than Kosher salt. Significant differences were observed among salts for their rates of dissolution, temporal perception of salt taste as well as composition. From a sensory perspective, there were few differences in maximum salt taste intensity. There were, however, some differences in the salts' time–intensity profiles. Red Aelea exhibited the lowest maximum intensity but also exhibited the longest duration of salt taste intensity in comparison to all other salts. Rates of dissolution were found to be negatively correlated with time to maximum salt taste intensity and overall duration of salt taste. Significant differences were found between the size of the salt particles and size was strongly correlated with rates of in-vitro dissolution as well as with a variety of time–intensity sensory measures Based on the fact that salts did not show large differences is taste intensity and many of the salts did not contain less sodium than the Kosher control, using the studied sea salts as a sodium reduction strategy is not viable.     

COMBINED MEASUREMENT OF FOOD TASTE AND CONSUMER PREFERENCE IN THE INDIVIDUAL: RELIABILITY, PRECISION AND STABILITY DATA

A cognitive theory of quantitative judgment that unites sensory methods into one general type of consumer test is applied to the assessment of individuals' preferences for the level of salt in bread and levels of sugar in a chocolate, a lime drink and a tomato soup. The theory is that each assessor knows rather precisely what levels of sensed characteristics she or he likes in a familiar food or drink and that, in the absence of contextual biases, ratings relative to stable anchor categories of choice behavior are linear with discriminable differences in the described characteristic. Since Weber's difference discrimination ratio is constant over intermediate concentrations of salt and sugar, this implies linear rating against the logarithm of concentrations and such linearity was indeed found in food saltiness and sweetness ratings under conditions of minimal contextual biases on the expression of sensory preference. Also as predicted, a mid-response category of the most acceptable salt or sugar level and two rejection end-categories were used highly consistently as anchors, yielding reliable and precise judgments of tastant level within a biaset minimized multi-sample session. A high repeatability of ratingsfrom one session to the next (and not because of memory effects) confirmed the sensory reliability of this method and provided evidence of temporal stability of food taste preferences. Thus it is feasible to estimate an individual consumer's taste preference characteristics from responses to a few food samples.     

Effect of Food Matrix on Saltiness Perception—Implications for Sodium Reduction

Enhancing sodium release from the food matrix, thus increasing saltiness perception, is a promising strategy to reduce the amount of salt needed in foods. However, the complex nature of the effect of the food matrix on saltiness perception makes it difficult to control saltiness perception when designing food products. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the food matrix effects on saltiness perception of sodium chloride. The effects are discussed in the order of 3 stages in saltiness perception: release of sodium from food matrix into oral cavity (1st stage), delivery of sodium within oral cavity (2nd stage), and detection of sodium by the taste receptor cells (TRCs) (3rd stage). In the 1st stage, the food matrix affects the initial availability of sodium to be released, and also affects the spontaneous and facilitated migration of sodium from the matrix into the oral cavity. In the 2nd stage, the food matrix affects the availability of sodium and the mixing efficiency of sodium with saliva. The relationship between food matrix and oral processing of food that may affect the sodium release (1st stage) and the delivery (2nd stage) is also discussed. In the 3rd stage, the food matrix affects the physical availability of sodium for the TRCs, the physiological activity of TRCs, and the central activities involved in the perception process. Based on the understanding of complex nature of the matrix effects on saltiness perception discussed in this review, the properties of food matrix may be controlled effectively to enhance saltiness perception and achieve sodium reduction.     

Taste-aroma interactions

Taste and aroma interactions occur each time we eat or drink. In the laboratory, smell and taste stimuli can be physically separated, whereas under normal conditions the consumption of foods and beverages results in the simultaneous perception of aroma and taste coupled with tactile sensations, all of which contribute to an overall impression of flavor. Tastes can increase the apparent intensity of aromas; conversely, the perceived intensity of tastes is increased when we taste flavored solutions, especially when there is a logical association between them, such as between sweetness and fruitiness. Recent investigations of factors that affect aroma and taste interactions are summarized in this brief review.