Olfactory priming for eating behavior – The influence of non-conscious exposure to food odors on specific appetite,food preferences and intake

Sensory food cues in our surroundings, such as odors, trigger decisions that may lead to (over)eating. These cues occur mainly outside of people’s awareness. Therefore, it is crucial to better understand the effect of (non-consciously exposure of) food odors on behavioral responses. Moreover, sensory-specific appetite suggests that food odor exposure may enhance appetite for products with similar properties in taste and calorie content, inferring that we can detect nutrient content of the food through our sense of smell. Our previous research showed that conscious exposure to macronutrient-related odors influenced specific appetite but not food preferences or intake. However, eating behavior responses may differ depending on the level of awareness of the odor cue. Therefore, in our current study, we aimed to determine the influence of non-conscious exposure to macronutrient-related odors on specific appetite, food preferences and food intake. 34 healthy, normal-weight and unrestrained Dutch females underwent four sessions where they were non-consciously exposed to odors representing food high in carbohydrates, protein and fat, and low-calorie foods. Eating behavior was assessed through a specific appetite questionnaire, a computer task on macronutrient and taste food preferences, and actual food intake by means of a salad bar which included toppings representing the different macronutrients. Results show that non-conscious exposure to macronutrient-signaling odors does not influence congruent appetite, food preferences nor food intake of a main meal. Follow-up research should focus on different odor exposure (intensity and exposure time) and outcomes measures to have a better understanding of olfactory priming on eating behavior.     

On the epidemic of food waste: Idealized prototypes and the aversion to misshapen fruits and vegetables

Food waste is a significant problem and consumers’ tendency to reject misshapen produce has been identified as a key contributing factor. The current work investigates the implications of consumers incorporating aesthetic beauty into their prototypes—mental renderings—of fruits and vegetables. It is proposed that consumers have idealized prototypes for produce and this impacts the aversion to misshapen produce. The authors draw on prototype theory to predict that consumers’ personal experiences will influence the extent to which their prototypes for these foods have been biased towards aesthetic beauty and, consequently, how they respond to produce that is misshapen. Across three studies, the authors demonstrate that consumers who have direct experience with produce cultivation view produce that is low in aesthetic beauty as more prototypical, less disgusting, and more desirable. This work contributes to the food waste literature by offering novel insights into the psychological basis of the aversion to misshapen produce. These findings also present important implications for food policy.     

A prospective study of food preferences in childhood

This study has evaluated the impact of food choices at 2–3 years old on food preferences later in life, by following up the same subjects. Early preferences were estimated through recordings of food choices conducted in a nursery canteen in children aged 2–3, from 1982 to 1999. The children were free to choose the composition of their lunch from among a varied offering of eight dishes. The same subjects (n=341) were contacted in 2001–2002 and so their ages varied from 17–22 (n=91), 13–16 (n=68), 8–12 (n=99) to 4–7 (n=83). Their present preference for the 80 foods most frequently presented at the nursery canteen was assessed through a questionnaire. Five food categories were studied: vegetables, animal products, cheeses, starchy foods and combined foods. The ranking of preference for the different food categories changed especially after puberty. However, regressions performed by food category indicated that for most categories, individual present preference was highly linked to individual preference at 2–3 years old. The link was the stronger for cheeses, followed to a lesser extent by animal products and vegetables. Present preferences increased with age for vegetables and they decreased with age for animal products only in females (to a lesser extent, they decreased with age for starchy foods and cheeses). Analyses by specific foods confirmed the global analysis. Individual present preference was linked to individual early preference for all mature cheeses and for 50% of the foods for other categories: most of these items were strongly flavoured. This study showed that preferences were stable from 2- to 3-year-old until young adulthood and that some changes in preference occurred during adolescence.     

Dining in the dark: How uncertainty influences food acceptance in the absence of light

Sensory cues such as the visual appearance of foods can have a significant effect on food acceptance and food intake. Yet there are many situations - such as those involving deployed soldiers, night workers, and nighttime snackers - where such cues are masked by darkness. This study examines how and why darkness negatively influences food acceptance and future intake and what can be done to mitigate any potential problem. The results show that ambiguous foods eaten in the dark conditions have a low level of acceptance, which may be mediated by one’s uncertainty about the food. Using clear product information (through packaging and labeling, for instance) can reduce this uncertainty and increase acceptance as well as future intake. Interpretations of these findings are discussed and their implications are underscored for those situations where individuals often eat in darkness.     

The silver sensory experience – A review of senior consumers’ food perception,liking and intake

It is commonly assumed that sensory impairments occurring with age negatively affect older people’s intake of foods in terms of both quality and quantity. This review discusses evidence published on the effects of age on sensory perception and the consequences for independently living seniors’ perception, liking and intake of food products. Because of anatomical changes in all the senses involved in human food perception, on average seniors perceive a lower flavour intensity than younger adults, are less sensitive to changes in the flavour profile of foods, and show a decreased ability to discriminate between different intensity levels of flavour and/or taste attributes. However, despite these differences in their sensory perception of foods, young adults and seniors seem to differ less in their initial hedonic appraisal of food products. Nonetheless, more research is needed to determine whether multisensory enrichment of foods across different modalities may lead to increased food liking in seniors both with and without olfactory impairment. Although limited, the current evidence suggests that sensory performance may be positively associated with BMI or body weight in specific senior populations. In addition, seniors fail to show a decreased appreciation of an eaten food, thereby increasing the risk of a monotonous diet. Taken together, these findings highlight the need for appropriate interventions and/or foods to improve and maintain adequate quantity and quality of food intake among independently living seniors, and especially those with low sensory performance. Such interventions should be holistic rather than focused on one modality and may also incorporate hedonic modulators such as past experiences, affective factors and external cues, e.g. brand names, labels or food packaging. In interventions and product development, segmentation of the senior consumer market is strongly advised to identify more homogeneous subgroups in order to deal with the large heterogeneity between independently living seniors. It is concluded that one size of the silver food experience will most likely not fit all senior consumers!     

The fair trade food labeling health halo: Effects of fair trade labeling on consumption and perceived healthfulness

The purpose of fair trade certification is to assure consumers that products support responsible companies, empower farmers, workers, and fisherman, and protect the environment. Yet, could it be possible that consumers infer greater healthfulness of foods containing such labels, and subsequently increase their consumption of fair trade certified foods? Across three studies, we demonstrate that fair trade labels can increase consumption by 26% to 31%. In study 1, we demonstrate that individuals consume more if the food product contains a fair trade label. In the subsequent studies we home in on the underlying process, demonstrating that the effect is mediated by the product’s perceived healthfulness (study 2 and 3) To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that (1) tests the effects of fair trade labels from third-party certifiers in package-based experiments, (2) examines the effects of fair trade labels on consumption, and (3) directly tests an overall health halo—perceived healthfulness—as the underlying process. In doing so, this research contributes to the values-based labeling and health halo literatures, while offering implications for public policy makers, consumers, and food marketers.     

Re-understanding the antecedents of functional foods purchase: Mediating effect of purchase attitude and moderating effect of food neophobia

The world market for functional foods has grown dynamically and China is expected to be one of the most promising markets. But little is understood the formation mechanisms of consumers’ purchase attitude and intention toward functional foods in Mainland China. The current study investigates the roles of trust, health consciousness and price in shaping consumers’ purchase intention toward functional foods by focusing on purchase attitude as a mediator and food neophobia as a moderator. Results from the sample of 1144 Chinese suggest that Chinese consumers had moderate purchase intention toward functional foods. Trust in the food system and health consciousness positively affects purchase intention via purchase attitude. Price negatively affects purchase intention; meanwhile, the negative effect could be counteracted by health consciousness. Food neophobia does not directly affect individuals’ purchase attitude or intention, but moderates the relationships between antecedents and them. Consumers with a low level of food neophobia treat higher price as a monetary sacrifice, while their counterparts may regard a higher price as a greater quality signal. The study offers the food industry insights into the development and marketing of functional foods targeted to the Mainland China market.     

Attentional bias for food cues in advertising among overweight and hungry children: An explorative experimental study

People with an increased motivation for rewarding substances show increased automatic selective attention towards cues that are related to that specific substance. The aim of this study was to explore if overweight and hungry children have an attentional bias for food cues in food advertising. A randomized between-subject design was used with 95 children who played an advergame that promoted either energy-dense snacks or non-food products. Overweight children had a higher gaze duration for the food cues compared to normal weight children. No effects were found of overweight on the attentional bias measurements for the non-food cues. Furthermore, hungrier children had a higher gaze duration, a higher number of fixations, and a faster latency of initial fixation on the food cues than less hungry children, while we found the opposite results for the non-food cues. The findings largely confirm our expectations, adding important knowledge about individual susceptibility to food advertisements. Overweight and hungrier children seem to be stronger affected by food advertising than normal weight and less hungry children. This study is the first that examined attentional bias in a food advertisement that is highly comparable to advertisements that are used by food companies, thereby increasing the external validity of the findings. The second strength is that the development of an attentional bias for food cues is developing at a young age and it was examined in a real-life situation.     

Predictors of food acceptance,consumption and satisfaction in specific eating situations

Three studies were conducted to examine the relationship of pre-test ratings of consumer food preferences (liking/disliking in response to a food name), expected liking/disliking, and situational appropriateness with post-test measures of liking/disliking, consumption and satisfaction in specific eating situations. A pre-test survey of 115 consumers assessed general preferences, expected liking/disliking, and appropriateness of 22 foods and beverages in 10 different use situations. The data showed a strong association between pre-test ratings of food appropriateness and expected liking/disliking. In the first experiment, subjects received an appropriate or inappropriate food at a lunch meal. In the second, subjects received a food item in either an appropriate or inappropriate social situation. Liking/disliking and consumption were poorly predicted from simple food preference measures. Better prediction was obtained by a combination of pre-test variables, but the variance accounted for was low. A likely factor influencing the results was the subjects' pre-test assumptions about the specific characteristics of the meal situation and how these matched or mismatched the actual meal conditions. In the third experiment, subjects received food items that varied in sensory quality at either an appropriate or inappropriate mealtime. In addition to the variables measured in Experiments 1 and 2, pre-test expected sensory attributes, post-test sensory attributes, judgments of whether the foods were “better or worse than expected” and “satisfaction” were collected. Results showed significant effects of both food quality and food appropriateness on all post-test variables, and confirmed the high degree of association between appropriateness and expected liking/disliking ratings found previously. Food preferences were again found to be poor predictors of post-test measures, while appropriateness and expected liking ratings were found to be good predictors of post-test appropriateness and food satisfaction ratings. Lastly, satisfaction was better predicted by both pre- and post-test variables than were either liking/disliking or consumption measures. Overall, the results show that the prediction of any aspect of consumer behavior toward foods in real life situations is extremely difficult. Although judicious use of multiple pre-test variables can improve prediction, much of the variability in liking, satisfaction, or consumption still remains unaccounted.     

Nudging health: Scarcity cues boost healthy consumption among fast rather than slow strategists (and abundance cues do the opposite)

We examine the effectiveness of specific nudges in the choice environment to foster healthy choice and consumption among consumers with fast vs. slow life history strategies (LHS)––short-term, impulsive, reward-sensitive (fast) vs. long-term, reflective, controlled (slow) foci––associated with low and high socio-economic status (SES), respectively. The results of two experiments, conducted in a field and an online setting, show that consumers with a fast, rather than slow, life-history strategy are more susceptible to scarcity cues, boosting choice and actual consumption of healthy foods when these cues are associated with the healthy option. Conversely, for slow LHS consumers, the evidence suggests that scarcity cues are less influential, and instead abundance cues tend to foster healthy choice. Finally, in line with the LHS logic, acute food craving mediates the impact of scarcity vs. abundance cues for fast, but not slow, strategists, while perceptions of socially validated trust in the food source fulfill this role for slow, but not fast, strategists.     

Fresh from the tree: Implied motion improves food evaluation

The current research explores whether the often-used depiction of foods in motion both on packaging and in marketing campaigns helps improve consumer judgments of food products. In two studies, we show that depictions of food with implied motion lead to enhanced evaluations of both freshness and appeal. This occurs even when motion is merely implied, rather than actual. These findings shed light on the common practice of showing motion in food advertising and in food packaging design. We argue that this phenomenon may relate to an overextension of a primitive link between motion and freshness. This feature can be used to help promote healthier food choices and consumption by increasing their appeal via implied motion.     

Conceptualization of food choice motives and consumption among Japanese in light of meal, gender, and age effects

Appropriate choice and consumption of meals are important to optimize diet quality. Nevertheless, the relationship between the conceptualization of food choice motives and consumption has yet to be elucidated. The current study attempts to delineate the effects of meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner), gender, and age on psychologically defined food properties in three conceptual dimensions, namely, desired-to-be-eaten, ought-to-be-eaten, and actually-consumed foods, based on self-reporting among 100 Japanese participants. Results showed that there were large discrepancies between food choice motives (composed of desired- and ought-food dimensions) and actually-consumed foods. Accordingly, the effects of meal on food properties were examined in each dimension respectively, and meal effects were supported in all dimensions. Although food choice motives did not differ across age groups, people in their 40’s rated the properties of the foods they actually consumed substantially lower than did other age groups. No gender effect was observed. There were higher correlations between desired- and ought-dimensions across meals compared with between desired- and actual- and between ought- and actual-dimensions. In addition, association between dimensions was stronger at dinner compared with breakfast.     

Korean mothers’ food choice behavioral intent for children: An examination of the interaction effects of food type,household income,and healthism

This study identifies how economic factors, like household income, and psychological factors, like healthism, affect the food choice behavioral intent of mothers in Korea. We designed a 2 (type of food: sweet snack as hedonic food vs. milk as utilitarian food) × 2 (household income: low vs. high) × 2 (healthism: low vs. high) stimulus. The participants were Korean mothers raising children in Seoul, Korea. Participants were exposed to an advertisement for milk as the utilitarian food and a sweet snack as the hedonic food and then asked for favorability and purchase intention toward each type of food and about participants’ household income and concerns regarding health. Our study found high-income mothers were not influenced by food type, but low-income mothers were. Lower-income mothers were more willing to purchase utilitarian foods than hedonic foods. High-healthism mothers did not favor hedonic foods, regardless of household income, while low-healthism, high-income mothers favored hedonic foods more than low-healthism, low-income mothers. In contrast, low-healthism mothers did not favor utilitarian foods, regardless of their household income, while high-healthism, low-income mothers favored utilitarian foods more than high-healthism, high-income mothers. The results of our study may assist the government and marketers to understand how healthism and household income affect food choice behavioral intent.     

The congruence effect of food shape and name typeface on consumers’ food preferences

Both food image and name are important in advertising and packaging, which means that identifying their effects on consumer preferences is of both conceptual and managerial importance. However, although an increasing body of research currently focuses on the impact of food attributes on consumers, whether the sensory correspondences between food shape and name typeface affect consumer reactions is an under-researched topic. This paper thus comprises five studies to demonstrate the congruence effect between food shape and name typeface, whereby consumers prefer foods with a round (angular) shape that are labeled with a round (angular) name typeface. This shape–typeface congruence effect is driven by the psychological mechanism of processing fluency, which derives from the sensory correspondences between food shape and name typeface. Finally, this study identifies an important boundary condition of the congruence effect, confirming it affects only the consumer response to hedonic and not utilitarian goods. Using multiple foods and typefaces, the findings provide significant implications for processing fluency, sensory correspondences, and food marketing.     

Tender food,tender hearts: The metaphorical mapping of hard-soft orosensory signals to interpersonal trust and prosocial tendencies

Prior research has revealed that flavors (sweetness) may metaphorically influence social judgements and behaviors (interpersonal ‘sweetness’). Given the inherently social nature of eating, other food related sensory signals beyond flavor may be conceptually mapped to social cognition and behavior. Here we tested the hypothesis that oral processing of foods with soft (vs. hard) textures may metaphorically facilitate (vs. inhibit) social behaviors conceptually associated with ‘tenderness’ or ‘soft-heartedness’. Two studies examined the influence of imagined (Study 1) and actual (Study 2) oral processing of soft (vs. hard foods) on prosocial tendencies. Study 1 revealed that greater magnitude of sensory characteristics associated with imagined consumption of a hard food (i.e., dryness) was predictive of decreased interpersonal trust. Using actual food consumption in an interpersonal context, Study 2 demonstrated increased interpersonal trust and charitable donation of time after oral processing of soft (vs. hard) food and suggested that this effect is a result of enhanced trust following consumption of soft food rather than suppression of trust following consumption of hard food. Although effects were modest, these findings provide initial suggestions that orosensory metaphors that shape social cognition are not limited to flavors (e.g., sweetness, spiciness), and that diverse properties of food may influence patterns of sociality.     

Smelling our appetite? The influence of food odors on congruent appetite,food preferences and intake

We are surrounded by sensory food cues, such as odors, that may trigger (un)conscious decisions and even lead to (over)eating, it is therefore crucial to better understand the effect of food odors on behavioral responses. Food odor exposure has been shown to enhance appetite for food products with similar properties: sensory-specific appetite. This suggests that based on previous encounters with foods, we have learned to detect the nutritional content of foods, through our sense of smell. We investigated the influence of aware exposure of macronutrient-related odors on various measures of eating behavior, in a cross-over intervention study. Thirty two normal-weight healthy and unrestrained Dutch females took part in five test sessions. On each test session, they were exposed to one of five conditions (active smelling of clearly noticeable odors representing food high in carbohydrates, protein, and fat, low in calories, and a no-odor condition for 3-min) and assessed on specific appetite, food preferences and intake. Odor exposure increased congruent appetite after protein-related odor exposure. Similarly, protein-related odor exposure influenced the liking for protein foods and the preference ranking for savory products. However, food intake was not affected by smelling congruent food odors. Together this indicates that exposure to (aware) food odors may mostly influence appetite, but does not impact subsequent food intake. Moreover, appetite seems to be triggered by taste qualities rather than macronutrient information of the food, as signaled by olfactory cues. Future studies should investigate the role of awareness in more detail, to fully understand how odors might be used to steer people towards healthier food choices.     

Gender differences in the influence of personality traits on spicy food liking and intake

It has been proposed, and only minimally explored, that personality factors may play a role in determining an individual’s sensitivity to and preference for capsaicin containing foods. We explored these relationships further here. Participants rated a number of foods and sensations on a generalized liking scale in a laboratory setting; after leaving the laboratory, they filled out an online personality survey, which included Arnett’s Inventory of Sensation Seeking (AISS) and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ). Recently, we reported strong and moderate correlations between the liking of a spicy meal and the personality constructs of Sensation Seeking (AISS) and Sensitivity to Reward (SPSRQ), respectively. Here, we use moderation models to explore the relationships between personality traits, perceived intensity of the burn of capsaicin, and the liking and consumption of spicy foods. Limited evidence of moderation was observed; however differential effects of the personality traits were seen in men versus women. In men, Sensitivity to Reward associated more strongly with liking and consumption of spicy foods, while in women, Sensation Seeking associated more strongly with liking and intake of spicy foods. These differences suggest that in men and women, there may be divergent mechanisms leading to the intake of spicy foods; specifically, men may respond more to extrinsic factors, while women may respond more to intrinsic factors.     

Meaning of food and consumer eating behaviors

Prior research suggests that food is embedded in a system of meanings. Yet, little is known about how the different meanings people attribute to food affect their food consumption behavior. Results of a nationally representative survey in Austria reveal how food meanings (sacred, moral, health, social, and aesthetic, assessed with the Meaning of Food in Life Questionnaire) relate to a wide range of food consumption patterns (health-conscious, discerning, indulgent, and functional). First, health-conscious eating behaviors (e.g., following a healthy diet, frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables, buying seasonal and regional foods, cooking, following medical recommendations about nutrition) were driven by the social and moral meanings of food. Second, discerning eating behaviors (e.g., buying organic products, shopping at small stores or local markets, avoiding meat products, prioritizing quality over quantity) were predicted by the moral meaning of food. Third, indulgent eating behaviors (e.g., consuming salty and sweet snacks and ready-made meals, eating on the go, overeating) were driven by the aesthetic meaning of food and a lowered importance of the health meaning of food. Finally, functional eating behaviors (e.g., consuming functional foods such as dietary supplements, enriched foods or “light” products, paying attention to food labels, buying groceries with a shopping list, buying groceries online) were driven by the sacred meaning of food and a lowered appreciation of the aesthetic meaning of food. Taken together, these findings suggest that food meaning can serve as a useful framework to understand different patterns of food consumption, generate novel insights and provide actionable recommendations.     

Discordance in risk perception between children,parents, and teachers in terms of consumption of cheap and poorly nutritious food sold around schools

Little is known about the eating behavior of Asian children when faced with a range of poorly nutritious foods sold around schools, and whether they appreciate the risks involved in consuming such foods. To provide adequate education regarding proper food consumption, it is essential to understand how children perceive the potential risks and to examine their actual eating behaviors. The perceptions of adults and children should also be compared. This study selected children from the most populous primary schools (n = 166) in 36 of the national capital regions of the Republic of Korea. A total of 443 children were randomly selected from each school and they, their parents (n = 425), and nutrition teachers (n = 166) were asked to complete a questionnaire (total 11 questions) designed to examine how children and adults perceived the risks associated with the consumption of cheap and poorly nutritious foods sold around schools. Most children (>70%) consumed these foods more than once per week, even though they were aware that they may be potential hazardous. Children were significantly less concerned about the risks associated with their eating behaviors than their parents and teachers (p < 0.05), particularly regarding snacks prepared and cooked under unhygienic conditions. Although parents and teachers were very concerned about children’s food consumption, they misunderstood the level of children’s awareness, their preferences, and their actual eating behaviors. This study generated a database of information about children’s actual eating behavior around schools, and the perception (by children, parents, and teachers) of the risks. This database may contribute to the design of suitable educational programs for children, parents, and teachers.     

Mindfulness and willingness to try insects as food: The role of disgust

Mindfulness, commonly associated with Buddhism, refers to the state of being aware, taking note of what is going on within oneself and outside of the world. In the current research, we examine the possible impact of mindfulness on willingness to try insect foods. We present the results of three studies—one correlational and two experimental—illustrating that mindfulness increases disgust and lowers willingness to try eating insects. On the one hand, this counters existing literature that mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity. On the other hand, it is in-line with mindfulness making one more aware and accepting of present and incoming information, which would conceivably include context-relevant emotions such as disgust in the case of eating insects that Western cultures see as disgusting. Our findings support the latter possibility. We situate our work within the literature on the various impacts of mindfulness on food choice. We also discuss implications for food sustainability practitioners.