Gene Expression Profiling in Short‐Term Imbibition of Wheat: Tools for Dissecting of Pasting Properties of Imbibed Wheat Seeds

Germination of wheat maximizes phytochemical content and antioxidant activity while altering chemical composition, gluten content, and pasting properties. This study investigated the effect of short‐term imbibition on gene expression profiles and the physical and functional characteristics of wheat. Changes in gene expression profiles of wheat during short‐term imbibition (0, 16, and 24 hr) were evaluated by DNA microarray analysis. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis was carried out to categorize the function of genes with altered expression. Genes related to cellulose and cell wall synthesis were upregulated by imbibition for 16 hr, whereas those associated with polysaccharide catabolism and nucleosome assembly were upregulated in the subsequent 8 hr. The genes related to proteases and gluten were expressed in dry seeds but disappeared after 16 hr of imbibition. Genes encoding α‐amylase were not expressed in dry seeds whereas those encoding β‐amylase were expressed in dry seeds and downregulated by imbibition. According to quantitative real‐time PCR and enzymatic activity assay, α‐Amylase expression increased by imbibition and reached a maximum 24 hr after imbibition, with a corresponding increase in enzymatic activity. Pasting properties of flour made from wheat seeds imbibed for different times were decreased when seeds were imbibed for over 16 hr, by examination with Rapid Visco Analyzer. Gluten content did not significantly change until 24‐hr imbibition, although expression of genes encoding gliadin and glutenin disappeared by 16‐hr imbibition. The data indicated that it was possible to use 16‐hr imbibed wheat, with up to the 50% w/w replacement of nonimbibed wheat.     

In vitro evaluation of antifungal activity of soybean (Glycine max) seed coat proteins

Proteins in the soybean seed coat have previously been characterized; however, the function of these proteins is unknown. We show that a soybean seed coat protein fraction was able to inhibit the growth of Fusarium lateritium and Fusarium oxysporum phytopathogenic fungi. The antifungal fraction isolated by DEAE-Sepharose chromatography revealed the presence of peroxidase, vicilin and a 24 kDa protein homologous to acid phosphatases. Germination experiments revealed that both acid phosphatase and peroxidase were exuded during seed imbibition. We suggest that the set of seed coat antifungal proteins may help protect seeds from colonization by phytopathogenic fungi.     

Desiccant drying prior to hermetic storage extends viability and reduces bruchid (Callosobruchus chinensis L.) infestation of mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek) seeds

Seeds of mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek) are subject to loss of viability due to aging and damage from pulse beetles (or bruchids; Callosobruchus spp.) infestation during storage. We investigated whether seed drying using desiccants and hermetic packaging would prevent or ameliorate these consequences of storage. Sun-dried mung bean seeds at a moisture content of 10% were subjected to further drying for 72 h using five different desiccants: Drying Beads® (a zeolite-based desiccant), silica gel, sodium aluminum silicate, activated alumina, and cow-dung ash (a traditional desiccant). Seeds were subsequently stored in hermetic plastic containers in the presence of these desiccants under ambient conditions along with sun-dried seeds stored in cloth bags or in hermetic containers. In addition, parallel samples of each treatment were inoculated with one pair of bruchid beetles (C. chinensis L.) and stored under the same conditions. The seed drying treatments did not affect initial seed quality (germination percentage and seedling vigor) significantly. After storage for 9 months at ambient temperatures, seeds dried using Drying Beads, silica gel, sodium aluminum silicate and activated alumina had higher germination percentages, seedling vigor indices and soil emergence, and lower electrical conductivity (leakage upon imbibition) and fungal infestation compared to other conditions. In addition, the mung bean seeds inoculated with bruchids and stored with these effective desiccants had less damage, oviposition, and insect respiratory activity in the hermetic containers and maintained higher seed germination and seedling vigor after six months of storage compared to other treatments and controls. The results demonstrate the superior ability of desiccants to quickly and safely dry seeds prior to and during storage and the benefits of such drying and hermetic storage conditions for preventing seed deterioration and insect damage during storage.     

Colour of rapeseed (Brassica napus) surface and contamination by fungi during storage of dry and wet seeds

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of seed size and cultivation location on the diversity of colour of rapeseed surface and the level of fungi infection of sound, dry rapeseed and the correlation between colour attributes and fungal growth during storage of wet seeds. It has been reported that the colour, mouldiness degree and genera differentiation on the surface of sound seeds depend on both the seed size and the seed cultivation location. The storage of wet rapeseed led to a colour shift to a green‐yellowish hue with higher lightness and to about a 1000‐fold increase in colony‐forming units (CFUs) per seed mass. During the first 15 days, fungal growth was undetectable both by human eye inspection and by digital image analysis (DIA). The onset of fungal growth was associated with slight increase in G (of RGB) and a* and b* (of CIE L*a*b*) colour attributes.     

Reserve mobilisation in mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) seed (Leguminosae)

The seeds of Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) have a water barrier composed of the palisade layer present in the seed tegument and galactomannans in the endosperm. Changes in the morphological and physiological states of seeds are usually accompanied by changes in their metabolism. The aim of this study was to detect and characterise the main reserves and their mobilisation during and following germination of P. juliflora seeds. Sections of seeds 0, 24, 48 and 72 h after the onset of the imbibing process were evaluated by light microscopy, and seed reserves were extracted and quantified. Polysaccharides were isolated and characterised by ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. In mesquite seeds a well‐developed endosperm, consisting largely of the storage carbohydrate (galactomannans), lies between the seed coat and the cotyledons. Germination was complete after 24 h of imbibition. At this time, morphological changes were observed in stained protein bodies. Chemical analysis showed a decrease in protein levels until 48 h. After 48 h, globular structures were observed in the cotyledon cells, but after 72 h these grains were smaller and their content was reduced. Polarisation microscopy confirmed that this material was composed of starch grains. The ¹H NMR spectrum of P. juliflora seeds showed that sucrose was used following germination. Apparently, sucrose is the transport sugar mobilised from reserve stocks for seedling growth. Parallel to endosperm galactomannan degradation, starch is produced transitorily in the cotyledon. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Expression of legumin and vicilin genes in pea mutants and the production of legumin in transgenic plants

Pea seeds contain two major storage proteins, legumin and vicilin, in proportions that are genetically and environmentally determined. They are synthesized from at least 40 genes and at least 10 different genetic loci. Mutant alleles at loci involved in starch synthesis, which result in perturbations in starch accumulation, also affect the expression of legumin genes, thereby influencing the legumin : vicilin ratio within the total seed protein. Examples of such alleles includer(starch‐branching enzyme) and rb(ADP‐glucose pyrophosphorylase( both of which result in a reduction in legumin synthesis; double mutants (rrb) show a particularly severe reduction in the amount of legumin. The effects of such mutations are specific to legumins. The amounts of vicilin are unaffected by mutations at rorrb. One of the consequences of the production of legumin from many genes is structural heterogeneity that is believed to preclude the purification of homogeneous legumin for crystallization and 3D‐structure determination. Expression of cloned legumin cDNA in E. coli can result in sequence homogeneity, butE. coli is unable to carry out the normal proteolytic processing of legumin precursors and consequently such material is different from that produced in pea seeds. This paper describes the high‐level synthesis, processing and assembly of pea legumin in transgenic wheat seeds, leading to the spontaneous in vitroformation of paracrystalline arrays of legumin, which may be attributed to the fact that the legumin consists of a single type of subunit. Such material might be used as a source of single‐sequence, processed and assembled pea legumin for structural investigation.     

Accumulation and quality of storage protein in developing cowpea,mung bean and soya bean seeds

This study was carried out to compare the time course of laying down seed storage protein in three legumes viz: cowpea (Vigna unquiculata), mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) and soya bean (Glycine max) planted in two replications. Pods were harvested periodically during seed maturation and studied for changes in fresh and dry weights, total sulphur, total nitrogen and protein content. At early stages of development crude protein formed about one-third of dry weight in the legumes but decreased to about one-quarter at maturity. The total sulphur which formed a substantial amount of the sulphur amino-acids in mature seeds did not change much in mung bean and cowpea but increased by about 24% from 20 to 69 days after flowering (DAF) in soya bean. Storage protein accumulation was very rapid between 10 and 14 DAF (10.4% day^?1) in mung bean, 7 and 14 DAF (12.9% day^?1) in cowpea and between 20 and 30 DAF (9.4 day^?1) in soya bean. Thereafter, protein accumulation declined slightly and gradually approached zero at time of seed maturity. The sulphur-to-nitrogen ratios gradually increased with maximum values in the mature seeds. Although seed protein content and quality (on S/N ratio basis) were highest in soya bean, accumulation of storage protein seemed to be faster in cowpea than mung bean and soya bean during seed maturation.     

Identification and characterisation of the major aspartic proteinase activity in Theobroma cacao seeds

Theobroma cacao seeds contain an unusually high level of aspartic proteinase activity. Although this activity is central to the development of high‐quality cocoa flavour, the T cacao polypeptide responsible has not yet been definitively identified. Here we report the identification and characterisation of an active protein complex from T cacao seeds with an apparent molecular weight of approximately 50 kDa. This active complex contains at least two polypeptides: an approximately 30.5 kDa aspartic proteinase, the product of the TcAP2 gene, and an associated polypeptide, the 20.5 kDa trypsin inhibitor protein. The active complex co‐eluted off a size exclusion column with another complex containing the trypsin inhibitor and a putative acid chitinase. The 30.5 kDa TcAP2 proteinase is apparently a monomeric aspartic proteinase with optimal activity between 42 and 47 °C and an optimal pH of 3.0. Significant inactivation of the TcAP2 activity occurs at acid pH around 47–52 °C, a temperature potentially obtained during cocoa bean fermentation. SDS‐PAGE analysis showed that the purified TcAP2 complex efficiently degrades the cacao seed storage protein vicilin into peptides smaller than 10 kDa. In addition, high‐resolution size exclusion chromatography showed that this proteinase is capable of degrading proteins into peptides as small as di‐ and tripeptides, indicating for the first time that the main T cacao seed aspartic proteinase can produce very small peptide products. Our results demonstrate that the aspartic proteinase encoded by the TcAP2 gene plays a critical role in the production of cocoa flavour precursor peptides during cocoa bean fermentation. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Seed reserves of chickpea in relation to molybdenum supply

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L), cv K75 plants were grown till maturity at 0.00001, 0.0001, 0.001 (deficient), 0.02 (adequate), 0.2 (supranormal) and 2.0 (excess) mg dm^?3 Mo in refined sand. The pod and seed yield of chickpea were at a maximum at 0.2 mg dm^?3 Mo, which is ten times higher than the usual Mo requirement. The seed weight of chickpea was decreased more by low (<0.02 mg dm^?3) than excess (2 mg dm^?3) Mo. In chickpea seeds, the concentrations of starch, reducing, non‐reducing and total sugars were highest at 0.02 mg dm^?3 Mo and decreased by Mo stress (<>0.02–0.2 mg dm^?3). In comparison, the content of methionine, lysine, legumin, vicilin, total proteins, protein and non‐protein nitrogen in seeds of chickpea decreased variably both at low (<0.02 mg dm^?3) and high (>0.2 mg dm^?3) Mo. Both deficiency and excess of Mo deteriorated the quality of seeds by increasing the content of phenols, cysteine and albumin and decreasing that of methionine, lysine, legumin and vicilin protein fractions, apart from reducing the seed weight. The quality of seeds deteriorated more by deficiency than excess of Mo in chickpea. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nutritional Quality of Vegetable Pigeonpeas [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]: Dry Matter Accumulation, Carbohydrates and Proteins

Since average dry matter accumulation of green pigeonpea seeds intended for use as a vegetable was 65.6% of the total in matured seeds, green seeds were collected prior to physiological maturity. Green seed contained less starch and more dietary fiber than did mature seed. Flatulence causing oligosaccharides were present in a lower amount in green seed. Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) was more in mature seed whereas green and mature seed differed little in chymotrypsin inhibitor activity (CIA). The mean value for in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of green seed was more than that of mature seed. The green seed had a greater amount of tryptophan and threonine and the sulphur containing amino acids, methionine and cystine. It is concluded that the green seeds of pigeonpea genotypes are nutritionally better than their mature seeds.     

Comparison of post‐germination mobilization of cell wall polysaccharides and non‐cell wall carbohydrates in soybean (Glycine max L.) cotyledons

BACKGROUND: In previous research, we demonstrated that cell wall polysaccharide (CWP) levels of soybean (Glycine max L.) cotyledons are negatively correlated with the sum of seed oil and protein content. Although the results suggest that reducing cotyledon CWP levels would be desirable, it is not known whether CWP are mobilized during early seedling growth and, if so, to what extent mobilization contributes to seed reserves. RESULTS: Ungerminated (dry) seeds contained equivalent amounts [approximately 20 mg (cotyledon pair)^?1] of non‐cell wall carbohydrates (NCWC) and CWP. Galactose and arabinose accounted for 47% of total CWP in cotyledons of dry seeds. Measured 14 days after planting (DAP), the levels of NCWC and CWP were reduced 98% and 34%, respectively, in cotyledons of seedlings grown under a 16‐h photoperiod. Measured 14 DAP, greater than 85% of cotyledon cell wall galactose plus arabinose was mobilized. The transformation of the cotyledon to a photosynthetic organ was associated with restructuring of the cell wall involving increases in uronic acids, glucose and rhamnose. CONCLUSION: CWP of soybean cotyledons are modified during early seedling growth due to mobilization and cell wall restructuring triggered by light. The amount of carbon mobilized makes only a small contribution to total cotyledon reserves. Published 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Proteome analysis of Pithecellobium dulce seeds using two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis and tandem mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND: Pithecellobium dulce Benth. belongs to the Leguminosae family, which contains several members that are important components of human diets owing to their high protein content and quality. In this study the seed proteins from P. dulce were separated and identified using two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis (2‐DE) and mass spectrometry respectively. RESULTS: The 2‐DE protein map revealed a total of 317 distinct protein spots, including a cluster of about 12 proteins located in the region of pI 5–6 with molecular masses of 55–97 kDa that accounted for more than 50% of the total proteins. Ninety‐six of the most abundant protein spots were analysed using nano liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS), from which 27 were successfully identified through the query of acquired tandem mass spectral data used in MASCOT searching against a custom legume protein database. A further four proteins from the highly abundant protein cluster were putatively identified using mass spectrometry‐driven BLAST (MS‐BLAST) homology searches. CONCLUSION: This research has generated a 2‐DE proteome reference map for P. dulce seeds and used LC/MS/MS to characterise the proteins. The identification of proteins from P. dulce was carried out using the sequence database successively for MASCOT and MS‐BLAST homology‐based searches. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) Seeds: Chemical Characterization and Extraction of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Compounds

This study was aimed to assess the effect of time and temperature on the extraction of antioxidant compounds from jabuticaba seeds (Myrciaria cauliflora cv. Sabará), to optimize the solvent proportion (water, ethyl alcohol, and propanone), and to characterize the extract according to the chemical composition, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Proximal composition, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities were analyzed. The optimized solvent ratio of 60% water and 40% propanone provided a mean TPC of 8.65 g GAE/100 g seeds and the antioxidant activity toward 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was 82.79% ± 0.50%. Time and temperature parameters did not influence the yield of TPC. The gross seed extract was partially purified and both exhibited a high antioxidant activity and antimicrobial potential toward Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria. The purified jabuticaba seed lyophilized extract contained a higher (P < 0.05) TPC, o‐diphenols, flavonols, and antioxidant activity measured by the DPPH assay and total reducing capacity as compared to the gross lyophilized extract. Electrospray ionization coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (ESI‐MS/MS) data showed the presence of ellagitannins and ellagic acid in the extracts, which are probably the responsible for the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities.     

Azospirillum improves lettuce growth and transplant under saline conditions

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have shown that as a plant‐growth‐promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), Azospirillum inoculation could contribute to the mitigation of the negative effects caused by salt on lettuce growth. Moreover, the use of PGPR to alleviate the effects of transplant in vegetables has also been recognized. However, the scarce data available on the use of Azospirillum to improve lettuce growth before and after transplant under saline conditions prompted us to focus our research on this topic. RESULTS: Early germination and seedling settlement of seeds exposed to 0 and 40 mol m^?3 NaCl were clearly improved by Azospirillum inoculation. At 0 mol m^?3 NaCl, plant establishment, leaf mass and root mass parameters before transplant were significantly higher in inoculated plants than in non‐inoculated controls. At harvest, leaf fresh weight, ascorbic acid content and plant survival to transplant were also significantly higher in Azospirillum‐inoculated plants grown at 0 mol m^?3 NaCl. In addition to these effects, leaf dry weight, area and chlorophyll content were also increased by Azospirillum inoculation when plants were grown at 40 mol m^?3 NaCl. CONCLUSION: Azospirillum‐inoculated lettuce seeds yield a higher number of transplanted plants with superior quality than non‐inoculated controls grown at 0 or at 40 mol m^?3 NaCl. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Identification of four low molecular and water‐soluble proteins from grape (Vitis vinifera L.) seeds

Profiles of soluble proteins isolated from mature seeds of grape (Vitis vinifera L.) pomace were studied using two‐dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D‐PAGE) coupled with matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionisation time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF–MS). Two‐dimensional gels stained with Coomassie brilliant blue revealed more than fifty protein spots. Four abundant protein spots showing low molecular weight (Mr) and wide isoelectric point (pI) were analysed by MALDI–TOF–MS, resulting in their identification. Taken together, these results suggest that identified proteins may be linked to seed development and metabolism, but more instructive is that they have some potential functions for future food application. These results provide some insights into conversion of grape processing wastes into useful products or even as raw material for other industries.     

Diet-derived vicilins detected in eggs laid by a double-mated female Callosobruchus maculatus originate from nuptial gifts donated by both male partners

The eggshell and the cement that attaches the eggs of the seed-beetle Callosobruchus maculatus to the seeds of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) contain vicilins, the main storage protein found in seeds. These proteins are derived from both males and females, which originally sequester them during the larval phase from their seed hosts. In this test, females received vicilin from different males during mating as a seminal nuptial gift, and transmitted this sequestered blend of proteins to the eggs. The presence of vicilin in the cement and eggshell was demonstrated by light microscopy and Western blotting. Quantification using ELISA showed that the concentration of vicilin from seminal vesicles of a virgin male is approximately double that measured following the first copula to a virgin female, suggesting that the investment of vicilin by the males is very important. This is the first demonstration showing that at least two different males can make a direct contribution of a sequestered protein which is used in oogenesis.     

Flavonoids of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Seed Embryos and Their Antioxidant Potential

Flavonoids from lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) seed embryos were fractionated over a macroporous resin chromatography into 2 main fractions (I and II), and subsequently identified by high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC‐MS²). Sixteen flavonoids were identified in lotus seed embryos, including 8 flavonoid C‐glycosides and 8 flavonoid O‐glycosides, in which the flavonoid C‐glycosides were the main flavonoids. Among them, 2 flavonoid O‐glycosides (luteolin 7‐O‐neohesperidoside and kaempferol 7‐O‐glucoside) were identified in lotus seed embryos for the 1st time. For further elucidating the effects of flavonoid C‐glycosides to the bioactivities of lotus seed embryos, we compared the differences of the flavonoids and their antioxidant activities between leaves and seed embryos of lotus using the same methods. The results showed the antioxidant activity of flavonoids in lotus seed embryos was comparable or higher than that in lotus leaves, whereas the total flavonoid content in seed embryos was lower than lotus leaves which only contained flavonoid O‐glycosides. The flavonoid C‐glycosides of lotus seed embryos had higher antioxidant properties than the flavonoid O‐glycosides presented in lotus leaves. This study suggested that the lotus seed embryos could be promising sources with antioxidant activity and used as dietary supplements for health promotion.     

Non-structural carbohydrate partitioning in Phaseolus vulgaris after vegetative growth

This study provides information on the concentration and quantity of starch, reducing sugars, total sugars, and non-reducing oligosaccharides in the organs of the common bean plant (Phaseolus vulgarisL cv Jamapa) during growth. The following observations were made: (1) the root, stems and branches were temporary carbohydrate storage organs; (2) until 80 days after sowing (DAS), the leaves were the major contributors to the non-structural carbohydrates of the whole plant; (3) during the developmental period studied, non-structural carbohydrate content in the rachis and pulvinus changed frequently; (4) the pod walls contained between 5 and 8% of total sugars at 72 DAS and by maturity soluble sugars diminished to less than 1%; (5) during seed growth (until 80 DAS), the pod walls contained between 11 and 18% starch (dry weight basis) and by maturity this carbohydrate had decreased to 2% of dry weight; and (6) starch represented the major non-structural storage carbohydrate in mature seeds (29%), as opposed to soluble sugars, which amounted to 2·3% of the dry weight.     

Hard‐to‐cook phenomenon in legumes

Abstract

Hard‐to‐cook legumes (HTCL) have been observed for centuries. Different types of HTCL are recognized in freshly harvested crops or are developed during storage. Two types of hard shell, which is due to seed coat impermeability to water, are identified: (1) the reversible hard shell that occurs in freshly harvested seeds and disappear during storage; (2) the other type is the irreversible hard shell that develops during storage. Sclerema is due to unhydratable cotyledons (despite removal of seed coat) during soaking, and it may develop during storage. Some cases of reported hard shell may be due to sclerema, since no testing was done to prove seed coat impermeability. Hard texture and sandy texture (i.e., grainy or granular texture) have been noticed in freshly harvested and in stored legumes. In this paper, variations in the physical properties and the chemical composition of the seeds of different legumes and of different varieties are summarized in several tables. The following topics are discussed with regard to different types of HTCL: the environmental factors affecting their development; the structural and the chemical changes associated with their presence; the treatments which are used or suggested to control their development or to improve the texture of HTCL; and the possible relations between these subjects. Several propositions concerning the mechanisms involved in hard‐texture seeds are discussed. Soft texture is associated with ease of cell separation of the cotyledons in cooked legumes, indicating the significance of the middle lamella and the cell wall. At present, it seems that the main mechanisms include phytate, phenolic compounds, and divalent cations (Ca, Mg) and their interaction with pectic substances and proteins. Starch, lipids, tannins, and lignin may have a secondary effect. More knowledge is needed about cell wall components, structure, and interactions, and about the effect of environmental conditions on them.     

Seed coat tannins and bruchid resistance in stored cowpea seeds

Seeds of wild species and varieties of Vigna were screened for their tannins and α‐amylase inhibitor contents as defensive compounds against cowpea weevil. Seed coats contained condensed tannins that were positively correlated to their colour but not to their resistance against the insect. The α‐amylase inhibitors were present in different amount in cotyledons of all species analysed. Amongst the cultivated lines assayed, Vigna unguiculata TVu 2027, an accession identified as moderately resistant, was found to contain the higher amount of α‐amylase inhibitor. When wild species were considered, V luteola and V vexillata (two resistant species) showed the highest content of α‐amylase inhibitors. In addition, two cultivated accessions (Vita 7 and IT 84E‐1‐108) of cowpea seeds, both classified as susceptible accessions, showing a different degree of bruchid damage in storage, were also analysed. No α‐amylase inhibitory activity was found in cotyledons of undamaged Vita 7 seeds, while the seed coat tannin content was found to be 13 times higher in undamaged Vita 7 seeds than in IT 84E‐1‐108 infested seeds. These latter results support the hypothesis that seed coat tannins must also be considered in biochemical defence mechanisms, which can deter, poison or starve bruchid larvae that feed on cowpea seeds. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry