Food control in Zimbabwe: A situational analysis

The food control and regulatory system in Zimbabwe is beset by many challenges. The system is fragmented and consists of many entities in the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and in local authorities. There are no clear mechanisms to coordinate the activities of these different entities and, in practice, they act independently except in times of a national food safety challenge. This, therefore, makes it difficult to ensure food safety throughout the food chain. Lack of the requisite resources is a major contributory factor to weaknesses in the food control system. In view of the food safety challenges in Zimbabwe, the food control system in the country is currently being reviewed. This paper describes and compares the current system with the proposed food control system as outlined in the draft Food Control Bill 2011. Particular attention is given to the establishment and functions of a Food Control Authority of Zimbabwe which will replace the existing State authorities in the control and regulation of food. The proposed Food Control Bill 2011 has provisions for a coordinated approach to food safety which would strengthen and improve food regulation in Zimbabwe. It includes proposals to bring together all inspection and analytical services under the supervision of one organisation. However the priority given to enhancing the overall supply of food and the lack of resources to develop a modern food control system is leading to continuing delays in implementing an enhanced food control system for food safety and quality.     

A Swot analysis of HACCP implementation in Madagascar

Malagasy government is updating its legal and regulatory framework to develop a sound national food control system. In this context, promoting good hygienic practices and HACCP principles where appropriate, are important components to ensure that food safety goals are met throughout the food chain. Relevant institutions and laboratories were identified regarding four main responsibilities for which the commitment of government is vital (food policy, risk assessment, legislation, public authorities). The paper highlighted then the internal Strengths and Weaknesses, as well as the external Opportunities and Threats, the government is facing towards the implementation of GHPs and HACCP system.     

Application of Bayesian Networks in the development of herbs and spices sampling monitoring system

Knowing which products and hazards to monitor along the food supply chain is crucial for ensuring food safety. In this study, we developed a model to predict which types of herbs and spices products and food safety hazards should preferentially be monitored at each level of the supply chain (suppliers, border inspection points, market and consumers). A Bayesian Network method was used to develop a model based on notifications reported in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed and the database of the Dutch national monitoring program for chemical contaminants in food and feed over the period 2005–2014. The model was constructed by randomly selecting ca. 80% of the 3126 data records and validated using the remaining ca. 20% of the records. Model validation showed that the prediction accuracy was higher than 85%. Results showed that the sampling plan is closely related to the place where the products are checked along the supply chain, the products and the country of origin. Our approach of integrating different data sources and considering the entire supply chain can support industry and authorities at border inspection points and at all control points along the herbs and spices supply chain in setting priorities for their monitoring program.     

Food safety and quality management regulatory systems in Afghanistan: Policy gaps,governance and barriers to success

Afghanistan has significant competitive advantages in agribusiness. Much has been said about Afghanistan's unrealized potential in this sector over the years and many specialists have highlighted challenges in infrastructure, access to finance, and inadequate legislation as barriers to growth in the sector. Many have also pointed to its potential productivity increase as a way to help alleviate food security issues. With adequate access to finance and infrastructure, Afghanistan should in theory be a top exporting country in all agricultural sectors. The potential also exists for Afghanistan to be a top exporter of high-margin products like fruits, meat, dairy and vegetable processing. In order to realize this potential, however, stronger food safety control needs to be in place to export to markets. In Afghanistan, food safety practices are still based on experiences from the late 1970s. Companies face constant pressure from the crisis, market competition from importing companies, pricing pressure from retailers, and seemingly endless inspections from government bodies. In fact, there are three main state agencies (Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, and Municipalities) that regularly inspect food companies, often performing the same functions and loading these already cash-strapped enterprises with unneeded administrative burden. There are still important issues to be addressed within the food safety system of Afghanistan, such as: complete harmonization of legislation with the regional (legislation and standards mainly), improvement of coordination among authorities; ability to ensure impartiality of inspection work; thorough training of inspectors and implementation of skills, especially towards risk-based inspection control; reform of sampling schemes for food of non-animal origin and imported food commodities; strengthening surveillance of foodborne diseases, control of adulterated foods; and supporting the introduction of self-inspection systems based on HACCP principles and good hygienic practices.     

Evaluating the determinants of public and private costs of local food control

The level of food safety is determined by the actions of the consumers, the food business operators (FBOs) and the authorities that undertake official food control. Food control requires substantial investments by the FBOs as well as by the society, and these investments should be proportionate to the benefits obtained. The aim of this study was to assess the magnitude of economic resources currently invested in food control by the local food control authorities and by the restaurant business operators (RBOs). We also analysed the determinants of the variation in costs and evaluated the implications of the variation for the efficiency and equity of food control. Our results revealed a large variation in the costs, which in relation to the RBOs may in some cases imply risk-based targeting of food control, whereas in relation to the local control units, it may simply lead to unequal treatment of the control objects. The personnel resources (work years devoted to food control) of the local control units varied widely, and there were large differences (at most fourfold difference) in the number of control objects per personnel work year. The units that were found to have high costs had high costs regardless of the measurement unit (cost per work year, cost per control object, cost per inhabitant). Furthermore, larger units were found to have higher costs per work year and per control object. Less food control revenue was collected from control objects in units with a higher number of control objects per inspector. The challenge of management increases with the unit size, and focusing on the management skills and the organizational functionalities of the control units seems necessary.     

Comparative study of imported food control systems of Taiwan,Japan, the United States,and the European Union

The growth of the global food trade has increased significantly over the last two decades. The purpose of this review paper is to compare imported food safety controls in Taiwan, Japan, the United States, and the European Union. Our key findings are: 1) imported food of animal and non-animal origin is by separate, competent authorities in Taiwan, Japan, and the US, whereas it is controlled by a single authority in the EU, 2) foreign facilities require registration in the US and Japan, 3) importing high-risk food in the EU, Taiwan and Japan requires the competent authority to inspect the food chain process and facilities in the third country, whereas a US FDA’s accredited third party auditor can do so in the US, 4) an advanced developed support systems for enabling the effectiveness and efficiency of imported food control can only be found in the EU and US. These findings may help the competent authorities responsible for imported food safety in Taiwan and the other countries to develop and enhance their own systems, not only to meet the international standards but importantly for the sake of public health protection.     

Effectiveness of enforcement measures in local food control in Finland

Enforcement measures are an administrative tool used by food control authorities for making food business operators (FBOs) comply with food safety regulations. This study evaluates the effectiveness and uniformity of the use of enforcement measures in local food control units in Finland. The study investigates whether and how rapidly the use enforcement measures leads to compliance with food safety regulations and whether the enforcement processes and their durations vary according to the seriousness of non-compliance. Enforcement decisions were requested from 29 (34%) local food control units, ten of which had used no enforcement measures during the study period. A total of 188 enforcement cases from 19 control units were analysed. The food safety violations were categorized into critical and non-critical, based on their likeliness to directly contribute to food contamination or foodborne outbreaks.The use of enforcement measures led to verified compliance in 87.2% of the violations. However, enforcement measures were used recurrently in 15.7% of the violations, due to repeated violations. The duration of the enforcement processes ranged from one day up to several years. The duration of the enforcement process was significantly shorter in critical violations than in non-critical violations (Mann–Whitney U, p < 0.001).Enforcement measures appear to be an effective way of ensuring that FBOs correct their food safety violations, although the enforcement processes were rather long in some cases and required recurrent enforcement. However, several control units had not used enforcement measures, which may be due to dissimilarities in food control actions. Use of enforcement measures should be uniform among food control authorities and equal for FBOs.     

The role of the Hellenic Food Safety Authority in Greece—Implementation strategies

During the last 15 years, a series of food scares and crises (BSE, dioxin, foot and mouth disease) have seriously undermined public confidence in food producers and operators and their capacity to produce safe food. As a result, food safety has become a top priority of the European legislative authorities and systems of national food control have been tightened up and have included the establishment of the European Food Safety Authority. In Greece a law creating the Hellenic Food Safety Authority has been approved. The main objectives of this Authority are to promote the food security to consumers and inform them of any changes or any development in the food and health sector.

The paper reviews the general structure of the current food control system in Greece. It describes the structure and the mission of the Hellenic Food Safety Authority and explains the strategy to carry out inspections and the analysis of the preliminary results of such inspections. Details are also given of the personnel training and certification and accreditation standards to be met by the Authority by the end of 2004.     

Evaluation of basic knowledge on food safety and food handling practices amongst migrant food handlers in Peninsular Malaysia

This study was aimed to measure the basic knowledge on food safety and food handling practices among migrant food handlers as these information is scarce in Malaysia. A cross-sectional study was conducted face-to-face amongst 383 migrant food handlers from three major cities in Peninsular Malaysia through questionnaire. Socio-demographic information of all respondents was collected. Questions on food safety knowledge (i.e. food cleanliness and hygiene, symptom of foodborne illnesses and foodborne pathogens) and food handling practices were assessed. The compiled data were analyzed by using the Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) 16.0. Overall, migrant food handlers had poor level of knowledge on food safety with an average food handling practice. Significant effects were observed between respondents’ food safety knowledge and socio-demography (country of origin and educational level) and two factors namely; respondents’ nationality and attendance at food training programs showed significant associations with their food handling practices. Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that attendance at food training programs was a significant and independent predictor of the respondent’s food handling practice. The study’s findings highlighted issues with regards to the extent of knowledge acquisition on food safety and hygiene by migrant food handlers. Therefore, this warrants improvements not only in the better delivery methods of training modules but also tight enforcement of attendance at the programs by the respective authorities.     

Measuring microbial food safety output and comparing self-checking systems of food business operators in Belgium

The Belgian food safety authority has provided incentives for food business operators to set-up a certified self-checking system (SCS), based upon good practices and HACCP principles. A selection of food processing companies in Belgium was invited to take part in a self-assessment study to evaluate the effect of SCS certification on the performance of an implemented food safety management system (FSMS) and on company's microbiological food safety output according to their sector and company size and to compare the added value of SCS against voluntary standard certification.Results revealed that the majority of food processing companies (90%) were already certified for a voluntary standard such as BRC or IFS prior to or next to the Belgian SCS certification (50%). Although five clusters could be identified among the eighty-two participating companies in the performance profiles of their food safety management system and microbiological food safety output, overall no significant difference could be identified between SCS certified and non-certified SCS food processing companies. However, assurance activities (i.e. set-up of sampling plan, validation and verification of the FSMS) were elaborated at a more advanced, tailored level in SCS certified companies. No significant differences were found according to company size, but depending on the sector more robust FSMS could be identified (e.g. animal products processing sector). The benefits of the widespread presence of a third party certified food safety management system (whether voluntary standard or national SCS) as a basis for governing food safety are also reflected in the favourable inspection results obtained by Belgian food safety authority (76.90%–78.71% compliance in years 2009–2011; 12 823 SCS certified companies being visited) at the processing level. Whereas higher non-compliance in inspection results is noted (47.55–52.45% compliance in years 2009–2011; 4 415 SCS certified companies being visited) in the distribution sector, encompassing a large amount of small food service operations and retail outlets. The introduction of certified SCS is still exceptional in that sector (4.11% in 2011) and the introduction of voluntary standards is less common due to lack of incentives, capacity and resources. Thus, there are indications that a certification system based on audits is an appropriate approach in pro-actively governing food safety and supporting the implementation of control and assurance activities at advanced level, hence increasing the robustness of the food safety management systems as a basis for good microbiological food safety output.     

Activities,motives and external factors influencing food safety management system adoption in Malaysia

This study was conducted in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia to examine the characteristics of food companies, their food safety improvement activities, motives and external factors that influenced their decision on implementing the Malaysian food safety system (MeSTI). The study employs a survey questionnaire which was distributed to the respondents during food safety seminars, workshops and meetings. A total of 89 completed questionnaires were returned. The results indicated that the main motive for adopting a food safety system was to improve product quality, while external factors influencing food safety adoption was consumer awareness of food safety and the intension of industry to increase customer confidence. The results of the study suggest that, compared with perceptions toward food safety, there is significant difference in the motives to improve product quality, lowering the risk of compromising food safety and extending their market to foreign country among different groups in the food industry. The external factors influencing food safety adoption exhibit significant differences among the groups of perceptions in increasing customer confidence.     

Food safety regulatory model in India

The changing food safety standards, stricter sanitary and phyto-sanitary requirements and improved global product norms trigger the necessity to improve legislative network of a country based on codex Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP). Due to multiplicity of laws in a majority of developing nations processed food industry is facing a major threat for survival and growth. In India nine different ministries were involved in controlling this area. Food Safety and Standards Act was established to integrate the food safety laws in India, in-order-to systematically and scientifically re-orient food processing and manufacturing industry from regulation to self-compliance. In this study, authors' focuses on issues related to the food legislation enforced time to time based on international scenario and trade. This study brings out the fact that more holistic approach is seen in new scientific standard development and covers a wider variety of products including functional food, novel food and beverages. The basic requirements of food hygiene and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) practices as described by codex are important for any national food safety control. However, the study concludes that there exists a gap in infrastructure and risk-based approach in the both implementation and enforcement. The study also provides the SWOT analysis of Indian legislative model and recommendation for improvement.     

Patterns of food frauds and adulterations reported in the EU rapid alert system for food and feed and in Finland

Food control systems are sometimes challenged when requirements set by law are intentionally violated by Food Business Operators (FBOs) deliberately putting food on the market with the intention of deceiving the consumer (food fraud/adulteration). There is also a growing concern that in some cases food frauds could be considered more risky than traditional food safety threats since their public health risks are often unconventional and difficult to detect. In this study, food frauds/adulterations published in the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) (n = 376) in 2008–2012, notifications of recalls published by the Finnish Food Safety Authority (Evira) (n = 50) in 2008–2012 and local Finnish cases (n = 16) in 2003–2012 were analysed to determine the overall pattern of reported frauds/adulterations in 2008–2012. Products originating from outside the borders were most often reported by both RASFF (92%) and Evira (90%), whereas local Finnish cases mainly dealt with domestic production (69%). In RASFF, 33% of notification reasons reported illegal or unauthorized trade, practices or adulteration/tampering, whereas the rest (67%) concerned detected frauds or intention of fraud in documentation. Missing, fraudulent or improper documents were also most commonly reported in local Finnish cases (63%), but the pattern was very different in Evira's notifications, where unauthorized food, ingredients or processes comprised 98% of all fraud notifications reasons. Both in RASFF fraud notifications (50%) and in local Finnish cases (88%), the majority of cases concerned food of animal origin, whereas in Evira's fraud notifications food supplements dominated (44%) and food of animal origin was reported only once (2%). The FBO was accused and found guilty of a health crime in 83% of local Finnish cases processed in court (n = 12). Although the differences detected in patterns of fraud/adulteration cases may be a reflection of true differences in frauds on the market, it may also indicate a risk of an overly narrow scope in surveillance of frauds/adulterations at the international, national or local level. This study also highlights the need to incorporate different types of data sources when planning national and international control systems for food frauds and adulterations.     

Assessment of the food control system in the State of Kuwait

National food control systems are a key element in the protection of consumers from unsafe foods and from other fraudulent practices. International guidance is available and provides a framework for enhancing national systems. However, it is recognized that before reaching decisions on the necessary improvements to a national system, an analysis is required of the current state of key elements in the present system. This paper provides such an analysis for the State of Kuwait. The fragmented nature of the food control system is described. Four key elements of the Kuwaiti system are analyzed: the legal framework, the administrative structures, the enforcement activity and the provision of education and training. It is noted that the country has a dependence on imported foods and that the present national food control system is largely based on an historic approach to food sampling at the point of import and is unsustainable. The paper recommends a more coordinated approach to food safety control in Kuwait with a significant increase in the use of risk analysis methods to target enforcement.     

Barriers and benefits of the implementation of food safety management systems among the Turkish dairy industry: A case study

The aim of this research was to determine the barriers and advantages of the Hazards Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and food safety programs (FSPS) employed by the dairy industry in Ayd?n, Turkey. By conducting face-to-face interviews and using questionnaires, the structure of Ayd?n dairy plants’ food safety management systems was characterized. The questionnaires elicited information about the applications of food safety systems, dairy plant managers’ opinions about any inspection systems, and their expectations for government and local legal authorities in food safety systems. Twenty-eight operating dairy plants in Ayd?n with a production licence from the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock show activity in the sector for more than 10 years (53.5%) with joint-stock or limited company status (60.7%). These plants produce white cheese, fermented milk products and butter. Implementing a clear and efficient food safety management system can improve legal issues (85.7%) and increase client trust (64.3%). This is positively correlated with the ages of dairy plant managers in the dairy industry in Ayd?n (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). All the same, not understanding the HACCP was specified as one of the main barriers to its utilization. Almost half of managers (46.5%) reported not really knowing what HACCP was, while 35.8% reported that it was too expensive to employ. On the other hand, the main difficulties with prerequisite program (PRP) applications in Ayd?n dairy plants was determined to be a result of insufficient physical conditions (35.7%) and cost (46.4%).A lack of knowledge relating to and the cost of HACCP and other food safety programs were the main barriers to implementation in the Ayd?n dairy industry. Providing periodical training and consultation services for FSMS applications in the dairy industry by the government and also providing financial support must be provided.     

Does waiving preventive food control inspections in Finland weaken the prerequisites for safe food handling in restaurants?

Finnish food control authorities waived pre-inspections of food premises in 2011, leaving food business operators to begin operating with no pre-operation food control. This study aims to investigate the effects of this food policy change on the preconditions for Good Hygienic Practices (GHPs) on food premises. Of the 916 food premises that were included in this study, 379 were pre-approved whereas 537 merely notified their operations. The results show that notified food service premises (restaurants) preparing food displayed significantly more non-compliance pertaining to infrastructure than did restaurants pre-approved for food preparation (11.5% and 1.8% of the premises, respectively) (p < 0.05). Significant differences also emerged in the number of premises with non-compliance pertaining to cleaning facilities and equipment, and marked differences in the adequacy of hand and other washing sites. Such instances of non-compliance weaken the preconditions for GHPs. The results suggest that re-introducing pre-inspections of restaurants would strengthen the preconditions for GHPs and possibly provide a model for other countries with similar food control systems.     

Establishment of a National Food Safety Authority for Cyprus: A comparative proposal based on the European paradigm

This paper examines the current National Food Safety System (NFSS) of Cyprus in contrast to NFSS of European Union (EU) countries and the EU central level. The main organizational structure of Cyprus, its legal framework, the competent authorities and division of their responsibilities are discussed. Particularly, we examine the roles and responsibilities of different agencies in order to identify possible similarities and differences with NFSS operating in Europe and determine which features are considered most successful.Cyprus is one of the EU countries that have not yet implemented institutional or organizational changes to establish a single National Food Safety Authority (NFSA) or a similar organization on the national level. The existing food safety system of Cyprus is characterized by an “off-hand” addition of structures and division of responsibilities among different government agencies, that are accountable to different Ministries. Therefore, the efforts to effectively manage the existing and emerging food safety risks are impeded due to duplication and overlapping of responsibilities among different agencies.The overall goal of our study was to develop a comprehensive proposal for the establishment of a single and independent NFSA in Cyprus based on EU experiences and good practices in an effort to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the current system.     

Early signals for emerging food safety risks: From past cases to future identification

During the last decades multiple unexpected and wide spread food safety incidents have occurred. The aim of this study is to learn from the past by studying the early emergence of historic food safety risks and apply these lessons for future early identification of emerging food safety risks. Information on the early signals preceding the emergence of thirteen diverse food safety incidents was collected, categorized and evaluated. It was found that in all cases early signals did precede the actual emergence of the incidents. The time interval between early signal and emergence varied between some months to multiple decades. Almost all early signals identified originated from two textual data sources: science and food safety authorities. It is concluded that in order to detect early signals semantic relationships between three key hazard concepts (food, substance and adverse health effect) must be extracted primarily from these data sources. A conceptual emerging food hazard model to visualize the concepts and relationships is proposed. When new information or a change in information is found for the hazard concepts a new food safety hazard may be emerging. Furthermore, we present the design of the Emerging Risk Identification Support system (ERIS) to support the risk manager with the identification of emerging risks. Some key factors for identifying emerging hazards (or risks) and the requirements of information systems to support this are discussed. With a functional system at hand and using science based information, the risk manager will be able to develop scenarios and, subsequently, the risk manager can initiate measures pro-actively to influence the development of the emerging risks.     

Use of food safety objectives to satisfy the intent of food safety law

Corporate food safety objectives and a HACCP based management system were used to resolve a simple, but very costly, conflict between the strict interpretation of food safety regulations and the commercial ability to serve safe food that fulfils the intent of the law. A case study will be presented in which rare roast beef was removed from the menu after health authorities found that the product was served at less than 60 °C, a violation of national regulations.A risk assessment and risk management strategy specific for serving rare roast beef was developed. The documentation clearly and scientifically demonstrates how physical processes for cooking, hot holding, service and cooling were validated to support the company's commitment to food safety and business excellence. Working instructions for each step of preparation and service of rare roast beef were validated. A specific HACCP plan was developed to manage the daily adherence to the working instructions. This HACCP plan is integrated into an overall systems approach to daily kitchen routines, so as not to place undue burdens on staff or management. Food safety objectives enable the company to communicate why the procedures to serve rare roast beef are safe. This rational approach to linking the explanation of procedures with safety is important for internal training, long-term program stability and external public relations.     

Performance assessment of food safety management systems in animal-based food companies in view of their context characteristics: A European study

Recurrently the question arises if efforts in food safety management system (FSMS) have resulted in effective systems in animal-based food production systems. The aim of this study was to gain an insight in the performance of FSMS in European animal-based food production companies in view of their typical context characteristics. Hundred European companies (from Belgium, Spain, The Netherlands, Greece, Italy, and Hungary) varying in company size, and producing different types of fresh and processed animal-derived products (dairy, beef/lamb, poultry, and pork) were assed using a diagnostic instrument. Results indicated that most participating companies adapted adequately their food safety management systems to the riskiness of their context characteristics resulting in rather good safety output scores. Only a small group have overall basic systems and operate in a moderate or moderate-high risk context, which was reflected in lower safety output scores. Companies tend to invest first in the control strategies whereas assurance activities such as verification and validation seem to require more time and effort to achieve advanced levels. Our study demonstrated that also small and medium enterprises managed to have advanced systems, and achieve a good safety output. However, their typical organisational characteristics such as less resources (educated staff, laboratory facilities, time), more restricted formalisation (restricted use of procedures and formal meetings), limited information systems, but more stable workforce, might require more tailored support from government and/or branch organisations to develop towards advanced systems in the case of high-risk products and processes. More in-depth studies to successful SMEs could give insight in best practices to improve FSMS performance.