严重事故下多组分吸湿性气溶胶的重力沉降研究

严重事故时,安全壳内的多组分吸湿性气溶胶将在高湿度的条件下吸水增大,从而影响其重力沉降行为。通过理论分析,本文推导了多组分吸湿性气溶胶颗粒平衡粒径的物理模型,并通过实验结果进行验证。该模型重点关注溶解度对吸湿过程的影响,解释了多组分吸湿性颗粒粒径增大曲线不连续的原因。同时,分析了典型千兆瓦级压水堆核电厂中相对湿度、干粒径及非吸湿性组分质量分数对重力沉降去除系数的影响。结果表明,只有当气溶胶颗粒增大到一定程度后,其重力沉降速度才会明显的提高;对于干粒径超过0.01 μm的纯吸湿性气溶胶颗粒,只有超过一定湿度后其才会因吸湿而加速沉降,且该湿度下限随着干粒径的增大而减小;随着事故的进行,气溶胶颗粒中的非吸湿性组分质量分数逐渐增加,上述湿度下限将增加,且同湿度下吸湿对重力沉降的促进作用减弱。      

低流速排放下气溶胶水洗模型

在发生核电厂严重事故时，乏池水洗作为放射性气溶胶去除的手段之一，应用于先进非能动压水堆中。为评估气溶胶水洗效果，本文建立了蒸汽冷凝、惯性碰撞、重力沉降、离心沉积和布朗扩散等典型气溶胶去除机制模型，同时考虑了可溶性气溶胶颗粒增大现象，采用FORTRAN语言实现了气溶胶水洗效果分析程序。通过构建LACE Espana实验装置分析模型，模拟了3种典型低流速工况，并开展了气溶胶粒径、蒸汽份额以及淹没深度等关键因素的影响分析。结果表明：水洗净化系数（DF）计算值与实验结果的符合程度合理，模型有效性得到初步验证；DF随气溶胶粒径、蒸汽份额以及淹没深度的增大而增大，可溶性气溶胶颗粒增大将显著提高DF。     

低流速排放下气溶胶水洗模型

在发生核电厂严重事故时,乏池水洗作为放射性气溶胶去除的手段之一,应用于先进非能动压水堆中。为评估气溶胶水洗效果,本文建立了蒸汽冷凝、惯性碰撞、重力沉降、离心沉积和布朗扩散等典型气溶胶去除机制模型,同时考虑了可溶性气溶胶颗粒增大现象,采用FORTRAN语言实现了气溶胶水洗效果分析程序。通过构建LACE-Espana实验装置分析模型,模拟了3种典型低流速工况,并开展了气溶胶粒径、蒸汽份额以及淹没深度等关键因素的影响分析。结果表明:水洗净化系数(DF)计算值与实验结果的符合程度合理,模型有效性得到初步验证;DF随气溶胶粒径、蒸汽份额以及淹没深度的增大而增大,可溶性气溶胶颗粒增大将显著提高DF。     

上升气泡内气溶胶沉降机理研究

气溶胶池洗过滤是反应堆严重事故中去除放射性源项的重要手段。本文以严重事故条件下上升气泡中气溶胶的滞留过程为背景，设计搭建了可视化单气泡鼓泡实验装置。通过该装置研究了气溶胶在上升气泡中的沉降效率，并与MELCOR中的气溶胶沉降模型计算结果进行了对比。结果表明，气溶胶沉降效率对气泡尺寸的变化较为敏感，当气体流量大于0.1 L/min时，气泡等效直径迅速增加，相应的气溶胶沉降效率快速降低；与MELCOR模型计算结果的对比表明，两者在总体趋势上呈现出较好的一致性，但计算结果低估了液相对气溶胶的实际去除能力，导致这种偏差的主要原因是气泡在上升过程中存在无规则的晃动以及气液界面的波动。     

不同流型下气溶胶水洗效果影响因素实验研究

在核电厂严重事故下，安全壳内混合气体通过喷射器注入到乏燃料水池中以降低安全壳超压失效的风险，同时减少放射性向环境的释放。本文建立了气溶胶水洗去除实验装置，研究水池对气溶胶的去除机制。开展了不同流型下通过喷射器的混合气体质量流率对气溶胶水洗净化系数(DF)的影响以及蒸汽冷凝对气溶胶去除效果的影响。结果表明：在注入流型为射流的情况下，由于射流注入区液滴拦截和惯性碰撞去除机制的增强，导致DF随着质量流率的增大而增大；在注入流型为气泡流的情况下，上升区气溶胶去除占主要作用，随着质量流率增大，气泡上升速度增快，导致气泡在水池内运动时间减少，DF降低。同时，在蒸汽存在的情况下，气溶胶去除效果明显增强，蒸汽冷凝是气溶胶去除的主要机制。     

鼓泡过滤可溶性气溶胶特性实验研究

池式鼓泡过滤是核电厂严重事故条件下一种重要的放射性气溶胶滞留过程。本文针对可溶性气溶胶在鼓泡过滤条件下的去除特性开展实验研究。结果表明,可溶性气溶胶会在鼓泡过滤过程中吸湿增长,尺寸增大,因此在评价可溶性气溶胶的去除效率时,必须保证上下游气溶胶处于干燥状态;另外,可溶性气溶胶的吸湿增长使得气溶胶的沉降特性发生改变,主要表现为原处于布朗扩散主导区的小粒径气溶胶会进入最易穿透区,效率降低,而原处于最易穿透区的气溶胶会进入惯性主导区,效率增加;气体流量的变化对气溶胶去除效率的影响不是单调的,与气-液两相流型以及气泡行为密切相关。实验结果可为验证和完善池式过滤气溶胶模型提供数据支撑。     

冷凝冲刷条件下壁面气溶胶去除特性实验研究

核反应堆发生放射性泄漏的严重事故后,弥散在安全壳气相空间的放射性气溶胶等物质会在墙壁、设备表面或地面等位置沉积。蒸汽冷凝液的冲刷去除是沉积放射性气溶胶颗粒离开壁面并再次迁移的主要途径之一,掌握沉积气溶胶颗粒的去除迁移规律,对于核事故后的放射性分析评价有重要意义。本文针对冷凝环境下壁面沉积的不可溶气溶胶去除特性展开实验研究,通过测量冲刷去除的气溶胶质量变化,探究壁面倾斜角度、冷凝速率和沉积密度等变量对气溶胶颗粒去除特性的影响,总结了不同工况环境下的沉积气溶胶的质量去除规律及去除份额。本研究可为放射性气溶胶迁移模型验证及优化提供支持。     

小冷凝速率下亚微米气溶胶自然沉积实验研究

为了研究小型反应堆在事故后亚微米气溶胶自然沉积行为,自主搭建了实验平台并开展了小冷凝速率下的相关实验。研究中发现蒸汽份额的提升对气溶胶基础的重力沉降过程存在促进作用,压力提升存在抑制作用;泳动去除机制的贡献占比随着蒸汽冷凝速率的提升而增加;冷凝速率较小时,热泳沉积机制在泳动去除机制中的占比可忽略不计;扩散泳S/W模型的适用性提高至385 K,当蒸汽密度和压力再增加时,实验所得亚微米气溶胶的扩散泳沉降速率高于S/W模型预测结果,根据蒸汽冷凝相关理论提出了修正系数。吸湿性气溶胶更容易在蒸汽冷凝条件下被扩散蒸汽夹带去除,3种扩散泳计算模型均无法准确预测吸湿性气溶胶的沉降过程。     

严重事故下气溶胶再悬浮的ECART模型分析

利用中国原子能科学研究院开发的CABSA程序气溶胶再悬浮模块中的ECART模型，对STORM项目的SR11试验进行计算，分析了核电厂严重事故下的气溶胶再悬浮特性。结果表明：气溶胶所受各种力均随直径的增大而增大，其中使气溶胶悬浮的拖曳力和爆发力比使气溶胶附着在结构表面的黏着力和重力增长更快；直径大的气溶胶悬浮率更大；结构表面流体速度能够影响拖曳力和爆发力，速度增大会提高拖曳力和爆发力，最终导致悬浮率增加。利用该特点，可通过降低结构表面流速降低拖曳力和爆发力，从而减小悬浮率，最终减小裂变产物向空间的重新释放。     

事故工况下核电厂安全壳内放射性气溶胶电荷分布研究

核电厂发生严重事故后,在安全壳内形成大量的放射性裂变产物气溶胶。由于核电厂气溶胶放射性这一特殊性,放射性核素的衰变过程及衰变粒子与周围介质的相互作用过程会使得气溶胶粒子带电。同种电荷及不同电荷之间的相互作用,可能会影响气溶胶粒子的输运过程。然而,目前的核电厂源项评估过程中忽略了电荷对气溶胶输运过程的影响。考虑到放射性气溶胶所带电荷量及电荷分布是后续实验研究电荷对气溶胶输运影响的基础,本文研究了放射性气溶胶的放电机理,编写电荷分布及电荷量求解程序,并对计算过程进行了实验验证,最终得到了典型核电厂严重事故工况下安全壳内气溶胶所带的电荷量及电荷分布。结果表明：在核电厂事故条件下安全壳内的气溶胶整体带负电荷;对于典型粒径的气溶胶(0.1,5)μm,对应的电荷区间为(0,-25);电荷量随粒径的增大而增加;气溶胶粒子电荷呈正态分布。     

核反应堆严重事故中气溶胶的吸湿增长研究进展

可溶性气溶胶（以下简称气溶胶）的吸湿增长是影响核反应堆严重事故中放射性产物动力学行为的关键因素之一,本文对吸湿增长的理论模型、实验测量方法以及核安全领域吸湿增长的研究进展进行了总结。核安全领域气溶胶吸湿增长理论模型以K?hler理论为基础,描述了吸湿增长过程中气溶胶热物性等参数与环境参数的关系,在此基础上发展的多种改进模型更适用于实际问题的分析,已在NAUA-HYGROS、MELCOR等核安全气溶胶计算程序中得到广泛应用。实验测量也是研究气溶胶吸湿增长特性的重要手段,相比于可测量气溶胶整体吸湿能力但结果较为粗糙的重量法,电力平衡法、HTDMA法精度较高,且具备实时测量单个颗粒及多模态颗粒群的吸湿能力,在核事故气溶胶吸湿增长特性实验研究方面具有潜在应用前景。本文最后总结了严重核事故领域吸湿增长的现有应用研究,包括核事故典型气溶胶吸湿增长特性的理论模型与数值计算应用研究、吸湿增长实验研究,数值计算研究表明,将气溶胶吸湿增长特性纳入到核事故气溶胶计算程序中可以实现对核事故发生后气溶胶行为更为准确的预测分析,相关实验得到了CsOH、CsI等典型核事故气溶胶的吸湿增长特性。      

华龙一号失水事故后安全壳内气溶胶自然沉降现象研究

对于未采用喷淋系统的安全壳设计,安全壳内的自然沉降过程是放射性核素在安全壳内的一个重要去除机理.本文给出了重力沉降、扩散电泳、热电泳和布朗扩散四种自然沉降机理的沉降速率分析模型,对华龙一号冷管段双端剪切大破口失水事故后安全壳内气溶胶自然沉降现象开展了研究,分析了气溶胶粒径分布特性、气溶胶释放假设对自然沉降现象的影响.分...     

De-agglomeration mechanisms of TiO2 aerosol agglomerates in PWR steam generator tube rupture conditions

A steam generator tube rupture (SGTR) in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) might be a major source of accidental release of radioactive aerosols into the environment during severe accident due to its potential to by-pass the reactor containment. In the ARTIST program, tests were carried out at flow conditions typical to SGTR events to determine the retention of dry aerosol particles inside a steam generator tube. The experiments with TiO₂ agglomerates showed that for high velocities in the range of 100-350 m/s, the average particle size at the outlet of the tube was significantly smaller than at the inlet due to particle de-agglomeration. Earlier, particle de-agglomeration has not been considered significant in nuclear reactor severe accidents. However, the tests in ARTIST program have shown that there is a possibility that TiO₂ aerosol particles de-agglomerate inside a tube and in the expansion zone after the tube exit under SGTR conditions.In this investigation, we measured TiO₂ aerosol de-agglomeration in the tube with very high flow velocities with two different TiO₂ aerosols. The de-agglomeration was determined by measuring the size of the agglomerates at the inlet and outlet of the test section. The test section was composed of tubes with three different lengths, 0.20, 2.0 and 4.0 m, followed by an expansion zone.The main results were: (i) the de-agglomerate process was relatively insensitive to the initial particle size distribution, (ii) the agglomerates were observed to de-agglomerate in all the tubes, and the resulting particle size distributions were similar for both TiO₂ aerosols, (iii) at high flow rates, increasing the gas mass flow rate did not produce further de-agglomeration, and (iv) the agglomerates did not de-agglomerate to primary particles. Instead, after de-agglomeration the particles had a median outer diameter D_c = 1.1 μm. Based on analysis using computational fluid dynamics (CFDs), the de-agglomeration was caused by the turbulent shear stresses due to the fluid velocity difference across the agglomerates in the viscous subrange of turbulence.It has to be noted that the particles used in this investigation were TiO₂ agglomerates, and not prototypical nuclear aerosols with significantly different characteristics. Therefore, the results of this investigation cannot be directly used to determine whether the nuclear aerosol particles may de-agglomerate in SGTR sequences. However, this investigation highlights the possibility of particle de-agglomeration under SGTR conditions, and identifies the mechanism of the de-agglomeration inside the broken tube and when the aerosol is discharged to an open space.     

Growth of aerosol particles in a steam environment and its effect on removal

In the present work, growth of cesium iodide aerosols in a mixture of steam and air (non-condensable) is investigated. The condensation rates are calculated including the Kelvin and solute effects. Particle growth to its equilibrium size, with and without energy conservation, is calculated for a range of particle size, temperature and surrounding relative humidity. The time required for the particles to grow to their equilibrium sizes is reported. Finally, the effect of particle growth on the removal of cesium iodide aerosols by gravitational sedimentation is presented.     

Development of Systematic Models for Aerosol Agglomeration and Spray Removal under Severe Accident Conditions

Radionuclide behavior during various severe accident conditions has been addressed as one of the important issues to discuss environmental safety in nuclear power plants. The present paper deals with the development of analytical models and their validations for the agglomeration of multiple-component aerosol and spray removal that controls source terms to the environment of both aerosols and gaseous radionuclides during recirculation mode operation in a containment system for a light water reactor. As for aerosol agglomeration, the single collision kernel model that can cover all types of two-body collision of aerosol was developed. In addition, the dynamic model that can treat aerosol and vapor transfer leading to the equilibrium condition under the containment spray operation was developed. The validations of the present models for multiple-component aerosol growth by agglomeration were performed by comparisons with Nuclear Safety Pilot Plant (NSPP) experiments at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and AB experiments at Hanford Engineering National Laboratory (HEDL). In addition, the spray removal models were applied to the analysis of containment spray experiment (CSE) at HEDL. The results calculated by the models showed good agreements with experimental results.     

池式鼓泡条件下气溶胶沉降效率研究

放射性气溶胶是核反应堆严重事故中最重要的产物之一，来源于固体裂变产物外漏和气体裂变产物的凝聚成核。池式鼓泡水洗是去除放射性气溶胶的有效途径，准确掌握其过滤效率，对于事故后源项控制和事故分析评价都具有重要意义。本文针对池式鼓泡条件下的气溶胶沉降特性展开深入的基础研究，借助先进的粒径谱分析技术，研究液相淹没深度、气相表观流速等参数对亚微米级气溶胶沉降效率的影响，探究气溶胶在上升气泡群内的沉降机理。本项目的研究成果可用于气溶胶沉降效率模型验证。     

Research on Aerosol Deposition Efficiency under Bubbly Scrubbing Condition

Radioactive aerosols as one of the most important products in serious nuclear reactor accidents are generated from leakage of solid fission products and condensation of gaseous fission products. Bubbly scrubbing is an effective way to deposite radioactive aerosols. It is of great significance for post-accident source term control and accident analysis and evaluation to accurately grasp its filtration efficiency. In this paper, an in-depth basic research was carried out on the aerosol deposition characteristics in rising bubbles. With the help of advanced particle size spectrum analysis technology, the influence of parameters such as liquid submersion depth and apparent gas phase velocity on the deposition efficiency of submicron aerosols was studied to explore the deposition mechanism of aerosols in rising bubbles. The research results of this project can be used to verify the aerosol deposition efficiency model, so as to improve the uncertainty of the analysis results of source term concentration under severe accident conditions.     

Experiments and computational models for aerosol behaviour in the containment

Aerosols generated by condensation of volatile fission products during nuclear reactor core meltdown accidents represent a major fraction of the accidental airborne radioactivity. A comprehensive experimental research programme was performed at Battelle to investigate the transport and deposition behaviour of aerosols in the containment, in order to support the development of computer models which estimate the fission product behaviour in the containment and the source term for potential radionuclide releases to the environment. Important steps in the investigations were: (1) DEMONA experiments. The first large scale aerosol test series performed in the Battelle model containment (BMC) (total volume 640 m³), using an open (quasi one-room) geometry and condensation aerosols from a plasma torch generator. (2) VANAM experiments. Advanced aerosol tests in the BMC, using a multi-room geometry, mixed hygroscopic/non hygroscopic condensation aerosols, a double injection period, and varying thermohydraulic conditions. One of the experiments was subject of the International Standard Problem ISP 37. (3) KAEVER experiments. A systematic investigation of aerosol materials and mixtures and the related deposition behaviour, using a simplified one-room test vessel (10 m³ volume) and advanced instrumentation. Important computer codes developed and/or validated in connection with the experiments are FIPLOC and NAUA; aerosol codes CONTAIN, MELCOR and GOTHIC-MAEROS were also applied. Some important results from the investigations and code developments are: (1) significant local aerosol concentration differences can occur in a multi-room geometry; (2) concentration differences can be caused by atmospheric stratification; and (3) deposition is strongly affected by material hygroscopicity and atmospheric humidity. (4) Satisfactory prediction requires a consistent treatment of multi-room thermal hydraulics, aerosol transport and steam condensation on particles. (5) Prediction results can be affected by numerical stability and nodalization (user experience). This paper presents a number of results of the experimental investigations and the present state of code modelling, with special reference to the findings of ISP37.