Participation,scenarios and pathways in long-term planning for climate change adaptation

This article describes a climate change adaptation planning process triggered by a group of researchers and stakeholders in a context where no collective responses or long-term plans for protecting a vulnerable coastal system had been initiated, despite local perceptions of vulnerability and risk. The case study shows the application of two methods: scenario workshops and adaptation pathways in the context of a participatory action research methodological design. Participatory action research and qualitative scenario methods are highlighted as accelerators of climate change adaptation processes by calling to action, facilitating and connecting diverse social groups with a stake in a long-term plan towards a more adapted society. The experience leads to the conclusion that planning climate change adaptation has to go far beyond the technical dimension and take into account those affected (in the present and the future) by decisions made. A holistic approach to climate change adaptation planning will depend on the interrelations of managerial and top-down approaches with localized initiatives driven through an inclusive and collective action research process.     

基于生态系统的适应在气候变化适应性城市多尺度合作雨洪管理中的实践——以哥本哈根为例

气候变化已成为城市可持续发展的关键挑战。面对该问题,越来越多的学者和从业者关注了基于生态系统的适应（EbA）概念,将其作为管理区域生态系统服务、提高生态系统服务适应能力的高效并且可持续的手段予以推广。然而,目前鲜有研究关注EbA措施在气候变化适应性城市建设中在多尺度上与各利益相关者的合作规划实践。通过定性方法弥补EbA在城市多尺度气候适应计划实践这一领域应用研究的缺失,以欧洲著名的气候变化适应性城市以及欧洲绿色首都哥本哈根市为研究对象,分析了EbA如何纳入当地气候变化适应计划并在多个尺度上予以实施。回顾了EbA发展与其在欧洲的应用现状,分析了哥本哈根市气候变化适应政策以及EbA在市域、社区、单体建筑3个尺度的合作应用,并且通过分析哥本哈根市第一个气候弹性社区的案例,阐释哥本哈根市如何通过政府、企业、公民等多方利益相关者的合作规划将EbA措施应用于当地气候变化适应性城市建设。最后,总结了哥本哈根市多尺度气候变化适应合作规划中的EbA实践经验：1）项目前的深入数据准备和分析;2）EbA措施与城市空间景观设计的紧密结合;3）多个利益相关方协调,促进公众参与。加深了对EbA提升城市生态系统服务建设适应气候变化的城市的理解,并在面对气候变化挑战问题上,为包括中国城市在内的其他城市提供了启示与借鉴。     

应对全球气候变化的地方规划行动——减缓与适应的权衡抉择

气候变化的时空复杂性与环境正义的实施困境,成为地方规划行动的基本挑战。在理论层面上,"减缓—低碳"和"适应—弹性"目标/模式的内在差异及矛盾冲突,导致地方规划行动抉择的复杂化。在实践层面上,地方规划行动通常难以产生预期效果,其根源在于缺乏有效的整体协调机制。针对气候变化之下的地方规划行动,提出应遵循整体利益、责权对等、适应优先、最大收益和补偿行为等基本原则;需根据风险暴露程度、脆弱性和碳排放强度等三个衡量标准,在适应、适应为主/减缓为辅、减缓为主/适应为辅、减缓与适应兼顾、减缓等备选方案之间,做出地方规划行动的理性选择;建议推进国家制度建设,以化解地方行动在战略、知识和行动阶段的现实瓶颈。     

Evidence needed to manage freshwater ecosystems in a changing climate: Turning adaptation principles into practice

It is widely accepted that climate change poses severe threats to freshwater ecosystems. Here we examine the scientific basis for adaptively managing vulnerable habitats and species. Our views are shaped by a literature survey of adaptation in practice, and by expert opinion. We assert that adaptation planning is constrained by uncertainty about evolving climatic and non-climatic pressures, by difficulties in predicting species- and ecosystem-level responses to these forces, and by the plasticity of management goals. This implies that adaptation measures will have greatest acceptance when they deliver multiple benefits, including, but not limited to, the amelioration of climate impacts. We suggest that many principles for biodiversity management under climate change are intuitively correct but hard to apply in practice. This view is tested using two commonly assumed doctrines: “increase shading of vulnerable reaches through tree planting” (to reduce water temperatures); and “set hands off flows” (to halt potentially harmful abstractions during low flow episodes). We show that the value of riparian trees for shading, water cooling and other functions is partially understood, but extension of this knowledge to water temperature management is so far lacking. Likewise, there is a long history of environmental flow assessment for allocating water to competing uses, but more research is needed into the effectiveness of ecological objectives based on target flows. We therefore advocate more multi-disciplinary field and model experimentation to test the cost-effectiveness and efficacy of adaptation measures applied at different scales. In particular, there is a need for a major collaborative programme to: examine natural adaptation to climatic variation in freshwater species; identify where existing environmental practice may be insufficient; review the fitness of monitoring networks to detect change; translate existing knowledge into guidance; and implement best practice within existing regulatory frameworks.     

Institutional perspectives on operationalising climate adaptation through planning

Adaptation to climate change is an imperative and an institutional challenge. This paper argues that the operationalisation of climate adaptation is a crucial element of a comprehensive response to the impacts of climate change on human settlements, including major cities and metropolitan areas. In this instance, the operationalisation of climate adaptation refers to climate adaptation becoming institutionally codified and implemented through planning policies and objectives, making it a central tenet of planning governance. This paper has three key purposes. First, it develops conceptual understandings of climate adaptation as an institutional challenge. Second, it identifies the intersection of this problem with planning and examines how planning regimes, as institutions, can better manage stress created by climate change impacts in human settlements. Third, it reports empirical findings focused on how the metro-regional planning regime in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia, has institutionally responded to the challenge of operationalising climate adaptation. Drawing on key social scientific theories of institutionalism, it is argued that the success or failure of the SEQ planning regime's response to the imperative of climate adaptation is contingent on its ability to undergo institutional change. It is further argued that a capacity for institutional change is heavily conditioned by the influence of internal and external pathways and barriers to change, which facilitate or hinder change processes. The paper concludes that the SEQ metro-regional planning regime has undergone some institutional change but has not yet undergone change sufficient to fully operationalise climate adaptation as a central tenet of planning governance in the region.     

减缓·适应——应对气候变化的若干规划议题思考

通过对气候变化与城市规划关 系的辨析,阐述了应对气候变化的规划内 涵,构建了应对气候变化的规划研究框 架。从能源利用、交通与土地使用、建筑 设计与管理、水资源管理、固废处理、旧 材料利用等方面提出了减缓气候变化的 若干规划议题;从温度变化、海平面上 升、降雨模式变化、热带风暴等方面提出 了适应气候变化的若干规划议题。提出 将应对气候变化规划与法定规划体系有 机整合,是当前城市规划行业急需解决 的问题。     

气候变化下中国生态适应性设计在国土空间规划中的策略及本土化：定义、理念框架与解读

长期气候变化和极端天气事件给中国城乡可持续发展带来考验,而城乡地区自身的适应性规划体系不完善及生态环境恶化让城市适应性提升面临压力。因此,以"无悔"设计和可持续发展为基础的生态适应性(Ecological-based Adaptation,EbA)理念和措施逐渐引起国内学者的研究和关注。在收集和总结相关国际案例及应用的基础上,对Eb A理论、理念及研究进展进行深入分析和探讨。以生态适应性规划为着眼点,对分析的成果进行归纳,从研究和决策2个方面提出新的本地化解读、未来研究趋势及应用特点。同时结合中国开放空间规划体系的改革现状,提出适用于中国城乡可持续发展及韧性体系构建的本土化理念框架和相关建议。     

城市规划应对气候变化的适应发展战略——英国等国的经验

通过分析当今国际上以英国等国为例的城市规划应对气候变化的适应发展方法与策略,论述城市规划作为发展战略的重要专业工具,需要在规划的政策管理体系、规划编制的内容与方法、场地规划的基础设施适应设计三个方面进一步深化研究适应发展战略,以提高城市系统的恢复能力。     

气候城市设计对策研究

气候对人类社会的影响并不仅仅局限于以住屋为代表的地方建筑的形式和构造上 ,随着人类生态意识的增强和对城市可持续发展的科学理解的逐渐深入 ,气候条件尤其是极端气候条件对城市空间环境的影响越来越受到人们的关注。以寒地城市为例 ,分析气候因素对城市规划设计的影响 ,从宏观、中观和微观三个层面着重剖析不同阶段的气候城市设计对策     

A scenario-based approach to assess Ho Chi Minh City’s urban development strategies against the impact of climate change

This paper presents an approach to quantifying current and future city-wide flood risks to Ho Chi Minh City. Here urban planning scenarios linking urban development and climate change explore the main driving forces of future risk. According to the redefined role of urban environmental planning in times of climate change, spatial planning needs to go beyond traditional planning approaches to bring together, draw upon and integrate individual policies for urban adaptation strategies for land-use planning. Our initial research results highlight that the spatiotemporal processes of urban development, together with climate change, are the central driving forces for climate-related impacts. The influence of planned urban developments to the year 2025 on future flood risk is seen to be significantly greater than that of projected sea-level rise to the year 2100. These results aid local decision making in an effort to better understand the nature of future climate change risks to the city and to identify the main driver of urban exposure.     

建筑表皮生态设计策略研究

本文以建筑表皮为切入点,着重论述了表皮生态设计策略：自然通风;自然采光;保温隔热：低能耗;集成立面;新技术应用：积极适应当地气候。通过理论和案例相结合方式,充分展现了当代建筑表皮生态设计理念及应用,以及生态建筑表皮主要特征和发展趋势,以期为建筑同行提供参考与借鉴。     

The role of learning and knowledge in adapting to climate change: a case study of Norwegian municipalities

Coping with climate change includes the role of learning and knowledge. Taking a process perspective, this article analyses how municipal officers in the Oslo region of Norway are acquiring knowledge and building competence for adapting to climate change. The article illustrates the interaction between elements of experiential learning, transformative learning and social learning as bases for adapting to emerging climate changes; each being necessary and none alone being sufficient. Their importance differs according to how profound the changes in knowledge and competence are. Experiential learning and transformative learning are stronger under single-loop learning whereas social learning might emerge as more important under triple-loop learning. Because of the uncertainties of climate change, the central government might be wise not to issue detailed regulations for adaptation by municipalities.     

Adaptation Planning and Hazard Mitigation for Interdependent Infrastructure Systems to Enhance Urban Resilience Under Climate Change

Climate change and natural hazards have created multiple impacts on human settlements. Urban planning and design are effective tools in dealing with climate adaptation and mitigation issues. However, climate risk and its impacts are multiscale and complex due to interdependence between urban infrastructure systems. Identifying adaptation strategies to cope with these impacts requires planners to understand potential interdependent and interrelated consequences of infrastructure failure under natural hazards, and evaluate cascading and cumulative effects of climate change. This article discussed opportunities and challenges to incorporate interdependent social and physical infrastructure systems in the adaptation planning and hazard mitigation process, including climate hazard assessment, adaptation goal identification, adaptation strategy development, and implementation. The availability of urban big data and high computational resources will enable urban planners and decision-makers to better deal with those complex impacts from climate change and natural hazards. Successful adaptation planning and hazard mitigation for interdependent infrastructure systems also needs to solve issues in uncertainties of climate projection, institutional barriers of adaptation, and challenges of urban big data. Potential solutions to these challenges would include cooperation among multi-disciplinary experts, coordination between different levels of governments, and developing the ethical framework for data protection and robust methodologies to detect and reduce data bias.     

Fukuoka: Adapting to climate change through urban green space and the built environment?

This paper profiles Fukuoka City in Kyushu, Japan. We focus on the city's local climate change adaptation policies, and in particular the role of urban and greenspace planning in facilitating adaptation actions within Fukuoka. Fukuoka is a humid subtropical city which is currently experiencing significant population and economic growth. It has also made comparatively rigorous advances in climate adaptation, in a country context where local governments have been criticised for focusing more on mitigation. Fukuoka hence may yield lessons for other rapidly urbanising subtropical Asian cities. We illustrate that Fukuoka has a long tradition of science-policy connection towards the creation of a liveable urban environment. This creates a favourable research and policy infrastructure for adaptation, in particular mitigation of heat risk. This is evidenced in consideration of climate issues within the city's greenspace plans since the 1990s, and in an extensive body of underpinning applied research from local institutions into urban thermal environments in particular. Fukuoka's green terraced ACROS building has come to symbolise adaptation via the built environment, and has been followed by the emergence of further green roofs and through citizen and private sector involvement in smaller-scale greening actions. We caution that challenges remain around connecting different sections of local governments, and in maintaining climate and environmental imperatives in the face of ongoing development and expansion pressures.     

Climate change adaptation pathways for Australian residential buildings

Climate change can significantly impact on the total energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of residential buildings. Therefore, climate adaptation should be properly considered in both building design and operation stages to reduce the impact. This paper identified the potential adaptation pathways for existing and new residential buildings, by enhancing their adaptive capacity to accommodate the impact and maintain total energy consumption and GHG emissions no more than the current level in the period of their service life. The feasibility of adaptations was demonstrated by building energy simulations using both representative existing and new housing in eight climate zones varying from cold, temperate to hot humid in Australia. It was found that, in heating dominated climates, a proper level of adaptive capacity of residential buildings could be achieved simply by improving the energy efficiency of building envelop. However, in cooling dominated regions, it could only be achieved by introducing additional measures, such as the use of high energy efficient (EE) appliances and the adoption of renewable energy. The initial costs to implement the adaptations were assessed, suggesting that it is more cost-effective to accommodate future climate change impacts for existing and new houses by improving building envelop energy efficiency in cooling dominated regions, but installing on-site solar PVs instead in heating and cooling balanced regions.     

Explaining Progress in Climate Adaptation Planning Across 156 U.S. Municipalities

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Cities are increasingly experiencing the effects of climate change and taking steps to adapt to current and future natural hazard risks. Research on these efforts has identified numerous barriers to climate adaptation planning, but has not yet systematically evaluated the relative importance of different constraints for a large number of diverse cities. We draw on responses from 156 U.S. cities that participated in a 2011 global survey on local adaptation planning, 60% of which are planning for climate change. We use logistic regression analysis to assess the significance of 13 indicators measuring political leadership, fiscal and administrative resources, ability to obtain and communicate climate information, and state policies in predicting the status of adaptation planning. In keeping with the literature, we find that greater local elected officials’ commitment, higher municipal expenditures per capita, and an awareness that the climate is already changing are associated with cities engaging in adaptation planning. The presence of state policies on climate adaptation is surprisingly not a statistically significant predictor, suggesting that current policies are not yet strong enough to increase local adaptation planning. However, the model's sampling bias toward larger and more environmentally progressive cities may mask the predictive power of state policies and other indicators.

Takeaway for practice: State governments have an opportunity to increase local political commitment by integrating requirements for climate-risk evaluations into existing funding streams and investment plans. Regional planning entities also can help overcome the lack of local fiscal capacity and political support by facilitating the exchange of information, pooling and channeling resources, and providing technical assistance to local planners.     

Construction of Climate Adaptability Evaluation Indicator System for Urban Spaces in the Severe Cold Zones of China—A Case Study on the Central Area of Harbin

Climate adaptation research should consider both climate change and regional climate contexts. Research evaluating the regional climate adaptability of urban spaces helps identify weaknesses of climate resilience in spatial planning. This paper constructs a climate adaptation evaluation indicator system for cities in the severe cold zones of China, and evaluates the temporal-spatial changes of climate adaptability in the central area of Harbin. The evaluation outcome reveals that the overall climate adaptability of the study area generally improved from 2008 to 2017 despite staying at a relatively lower level. There are significant differences in spatial pattern and development of spatial elements of climate adaptability by districts. Accordingly, this paper proposes countermeasures supporting future decision-making on climate adaptation planning for the study area, offering a reference for other cities in the severe cold zones of China.     

Greasing the wheels,or a spanner in the works? Permitting the adaptive re-use of redundant office buildings into residential use in England

This paper explores the challenges involved in planning the adaptation of the urban built environment. It approaches this subject by appraising a recently introduced national planning policy (the permission to convert office buildings into residential use without planning permission) in England. Drawing on interviews conducted with planning practitioners, it is possible to unravel the impact of this policy instrument at the coal face of the discipline. The office-to-residential conversion policy has removed the long-established process of local planning discretion in England in favour of a developer led planning policy. Consequently, there has been a tactical manipulation of additional planning tools, originally designed for other use, to re-exert influence at the local level by local planning authorities. Rather than greasing the wheels of office-to-residential conversion, the new policy has thrown a spanner in the works of a unique local planning process that was originally developed to manage urban change. The paper concludes by calling for local planners to reformulate their role in planning urban adaptation by reasserting their role as “market actors” through the development of city information models, the exploitation of professional communication networks and the transference of their own tacit knowledge.     

湘北农村住宅气候适应性调查分析——以华容为例

气候与建筑的关系是近年来绿色建筑研究的重点.本文通过对地处夏热冬冷地区的华容村镇住宅冬夏两季的详细调研,从气候适应性的角度分析其总体规划、平面布局的特点,总结出华容地区村镇住宅原始质朴的"绿色建筑"设计策略,为湘北生态型农村建设提供了有益的经验与思路.     

Urban climate resilience through socio-ecological planning: a case study in Charlottetown,Prince Edward Island

ABSTRACT

Climate change impacts, especially on coastal cities, can no longer be ignored and in order to avoid significant losses in the built environment, the economy, and, by consequence, human health and life, it is imperative to address these impacts. We extrapolate the three pathways to urban resilience (persistence, adaptation, and transformation), as a function of the interrelations among the design of built forms (urban and landscape design), blue and green infrastructure (ecosystems), and knowledge-to-action (inclusion of local people and their knowledge). Accordingly, four urban and landscape design theories that integrate urban ecosystems are identified and linked to urban resilience and to the local ecological knowledge (LEK) through an inclusive design process (the charrette). The model is then applied to Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, a city that is increasingly subjected to intense storm surges and to sea level rise in Atlantic Canada, where a series of design charrettes integrated the LEK into urban climate resilience proposals that serve as policy recommendations for future action.