Not all project ambiguity is equal: A typology of project ambiguity and implications for its management

Ambiguity is integral to managing projects, yet little is currently known about the types of ambiguity faced by project managers, and how they respond to the different types of ambiguity. To contribute to knowledge on the nature and outcomes of ambiguity in the project management context, we conducted two studies to explore the types of ambiguity experienced by project managers (study 1) and how project managers experience and manage these ambiguities (study 2). In study 1, we used survey data from 312 project managers describing 704 discrete ambiguous situations in projects to construct a typology of ambiguous situations in the project management context. In study 2, we conducted 18 interviews with project managers to explore how they experience and manage ambiguities in their projects. Collectively, these studies revealed that 1) project managers face numerous types of ambiguities in projects, which we catalogued into seven higher order categories, 2) “task related” ambiguities tend to evoke more positive emotions in project managers, while “people related” ambiguities tend to evoke more negative emotions, and 3) experienced project managers tend to engage in a range of common practices that allow them to effectively manage ambiguity.  Our findings have a range of implications for how project managers can best be trained and supported in the context of high ambiguity.     

The project sponsor role and benefits realisation: More than ‘just doing the day job’

The project sponsor role has been identified in both guidance and research as being a key factor affecting project success. However, there is still a knowledge gap in terms of how the project sponsor role is experienced and understood by the senior managers undertaking the role, including their understanding of their accountability for benefits realisation. Phenomenography is ideally suited to address these issues, and was used to explore project sponsor experiences at a hospital in England. One conception of the project sponsor role was ‘just doing the day job’, which is contrary to project sponsorship guidance, but is consistent with some of the evidence on the role in practice. Using the interactionist perspective from role theory, it is suggested that seniority enables ‘role making’ individuals holding such views to conflate it with their substantive position. This contrasts with the ‘role taking’ conception of the sponsor as ‘wearing two different hats’.     

Engaging the organizational field: The case of project practices in a construction firm to contribute to an emerging economy

We develop a model of practices undertaken by project managers to address the challenges of organizational fields in an emerging economy context. We anchor the model in a qualitative study of project managers’ activities in a major construction industry firm in India. We make three contributions. First, our study illustrates how the micro activities of project managers, in coordination with the actions of senior management, address the emerging economy challenges, and project managers’ responses hold lessons for the emerging literature on “projects as practice.” Second, we augment the dominant cognitive orientation in the discussion of organizational fields in project management literature with a practice perspective. Finally, we enrich the institutional theory stream in project management. In addition to the mechanisms identified in that stream of literature, our data suggest that the activities of project managers in major construction projects may act as a mechanism of transition in emerging economies. While the project managers in the Indian construction industry firm undertook numerous field building activities that were crucial for their projects’ success, these activities were simultaneously addressing major gaps in the economic infrastructure of India. Thus, our data portray construction industry managers as not merely engaged in project execution, but as active participants in the economic transition of a country.Similarly, labor and supplier markets in India were underdeveloped, and the projects had to bear the cost of this development.     

How managers frame and make sense of unexpected events in project implementation

This paper examines how managers’ framing and sensemaking of unexpected events alters and adapts over time during the course of a major project implementation. By adopting a process ontology, we study the temporal evolution of framing and sensemaking of unexpected events and how they recursively influence each other. We show how over time managers’ sensemaking shifts from one form of sensemaking to another as they frame and reframe events to cope with changes in their environment.Our study contributes in two important ways. First, we contribute to the discussions on framing and sensemaking literature by illustrating how they manifest recursively. In particular, we show how change in framing of events alters the form of sensemaking and how new forms of sensemaking enable actors to reframe their expectations. Second, we contribute to discussions on how project managers cope with unexpected events in large complex projects which may lead to failures or project termination. We show how unexpected events not only disrupt actors’ mental frames of what and how to accomplish as part of project implementation, but also how they rework their expectations to adapt and move forward.     

基于委托代理的工程项目经理逆向选择研究

工程施工项目经理的选择对项目的成败起到至关重要的作用,为了减少项目经理逆向选择或隐藏信息行为的发生,研究了逆向选择下工程施工企业对项目经理的最优激励合同问题,给出了能够诱导项目经理如实报告其真实能力的逆向选择模型。研究表明,与对称信息下的最优合约相比,项目经理能力越高、合同要求其最优努力水平越高,其所得报酬应越多。高能力项目经理在信息对称和逆向选择两种情况下的最优努力水平相同,且逆向选择下能够获得信息租金;低能力项目经理逆向选择下最优努力水平向下扭曲     

Making sense of a governance framework for megaprojects: The challenge of finding equilibrium

The aim of this paper is to investigate the main objectives and effects of a governance framework for megaprojects from the perspective of project actors. A sensemaking perspective is mobilized to empirically study how project actors perceive the effects on government efficiency, legitimacy and accountability of Quebec's (Canada) governance framework. Results highlight the specificities and tensions between these three objectives, exploring the positive accounts, potential improvements and dynamic aspects associated with each. Using a multilevel perspective, results show that each level is related to a central objective: the institutional level with legitimacy, the organizational level with accountability and the project level with efficiency. Tensions are found within each level but more importantly between them, as some objectives oppose the others, making it challenging to attain an overall equilibrium. This exploratory research, based on 44 interviews and abductive theory building, broadens understanding of the governance of public megaprojects, notably by applying a sensemaking lens to an institutional policy that seeks to improve project performance.     

Psychological adjustment and coping among construction project managers

Construction project managers work under conditions of uncertainty and high risk, and this can contribute to an excessive level of work‐related stress being experienced. To date, there has been limited research that has examined how project managers cope with work‐related stress. This paper investigates whether coping and affect (both negative and positive) influence adjustment (anxiety, depression and stress) among project managers. A sample of 100 male project managers from Australian contracting organizations completed a questionnaire that measured coping strategies, affect state and potential stressors. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that specific work‐related characteristics such as work experience, project size, age and level of education influenced the psychological adjustment of the project managers sampled. Further, those who engaged in a more problem‐focused style of coping, such as active coping were found to be better adjusted than those who engaged in more emotion‐focused styles of coping such as cognitive avoidance coping, social coping, accepting responsibility and self‐controlling coping. In addition, it was revealed that increased adjustment of project managers was associated with positive affect. It is concluded that the psychological adjustment of project managers is influenced by specific work‐related characteristics, the types of coping strategies they use and their affect state.     

Examining the transition to agile practices with information technology projects: Agile teams and their experience of accountability

Proponents of the agile approach to project management describe this new way of working as more efficient, more productive, liberating, and one in which the team has greater control. We examine the experience of implementing agile practices within project management through nine agile teams in the financial services sector. Using grounded theory analysis of data from semi-structured interviews, several thematic categories emerge including accountability, team-based perceptions of their place in the organization, human factors in agile teams, and technical factors with the implementation of agile practice. As a result of these findings, we propose a framework describing how IT project teams experience accountability arrangements when transitioning into agile practices. The accountability experience is a result of the fit between the teams’ perception of how they are viewed as agile teams in their organizations, their experience of technical practices of agile implementation, and their experience of interaction and exchanges in their teams. We conclude with a call towards recognizing the dissonance between different expectations of accountability and a call for further empirical research into this phenomenon.     

Project manager's emotional intelligence and project performance: The mediating role of project commitment

Emotional intelligence is considered to be important for project managers to affect project performance, but emotional intelligence does not always play an effective role. Based on conservation of resource theory, this article explores the impact of project managers’ emotional intelligence on project performance. The results show that the emotional intelligence of project managers affects project performance through the mediating effect of project commitment, and project complexity negatively moderates the impact of project managers’ emotional intelligence on project commitment. This article provides practical guidance on how project managers can handle emotional intelligence in different complex situations and serves as a reference for the selection and appointment of project managers in complex projects.     

Enhancing project managers’ strategy commitment by leader-leader exchange: The role of psychological empowerment and organizational identification

Projects are considered an important means of implementing strategies in project-based organizations (PBOs). Project managers need to lead projects following organizational strategies in PBOs. As a result, project managers’ commitment to strategy, which reflects their intention to perform strategic behavior, plays an important role in strategy implementation in PBOs. This study examined the role of leader-leader exchange (LLX), psychological empowerment, and organizational identification of project managers in enhancing strategy commitment. Survey data were analyzed with structural equation modeling. The results show that both LLX and psychological empowerment of project managers enhance their strategy commitment. Besides, this study reveals project managers’ psychological motivational mechanisms by investigating the mediating role of psychological empowerment and the moderating role of organizational identification. This study contributes to PBOs strategy implementation literature by extending the enhancers of strategy commitment. It generates useful insights by revealing project managers’ psychological mechanisms between LLX and strategy commitment.     

Project managers and major projects

Most project managers aim or hope to work on at least one major project during their career. Obtaining the necessary experience to cope with such a project can pose problems for a young aspiring project manager. The term project manager is defined, and the methods employed to select project managers are discussed. The work that a project manager is expected to do is outlined. Suggestions are made as to how the experience needed to control a major project can be obtained.     

The Titanic sunk,so what? Project manager response to unexpected events

Projects are inherently uncertain and face unexpected events, from small changes in scope to unforeseen client’s bankruptcy. This paper studies how project managers respond to such events and how successful and unsuccessful responses differ from the perspective of the practitioner. We analysed 44 unexpected events faced by 22 experienced project managers in defence and defence-related organisations. The project managers compared two unexpected events that they faced, one that they considered the response successful and the other unsuccessful. We identified three pillars supporting successful responses to unexpected events: (1) responsive and functioning structure at the organisational level, (2) good interpersonal relationship at the group level and (3) competent people at the individual level. The events and respective responses analysed suggest that improvement in project management can be achieved by better managing these three pillars, allowing project and programme managers to “create their own luck”.     

Job crafting in project management: Implications for project success and career satisfaction

There is growing evidence that project managers are a heterogeneous group of people. Practitioners hold competing perspectives of project managing and have increasingly greater agency in the choice of tools and method used in their roles. Using job crafting theory, we contribute to the literature on project management careers by measuring how, and to what extent, project managers customise their jobs to better fit their motives, strengths and passions. Job crafting involves self-initiated behaviours that shape, mould, and change job design to better suit the individual. Using structural equation modelling and a sample of IT project managers (N = 245) the objectives of the paper seek to i) establish whether one's perspective of project management predicts job crafting behaviour, ii) explore how job crafting is used in project management and, iii) ascertain whether the benefit of job crafting is individual, project-based or both. The findings show that a value creation perspective of project management predicts job crafting behaviour. A performative link between task crafting and project success is established which in turn impacts long term career satisfaction. In contrast, relational crafting by project managers positively contributes to job satisfaction, but does not support project success.     

Very important,yet very neglected: Where do local communities stand when examining social sustainability in major construction projects?

Major construction projects are characterized by a heterogeneous audience of stakeholders who can create severe reputational risk to project organizations when not properly addressed. The inclusion and support that project organizations devote to local communities form a crucial part of a project's delivery and social sustainability considerations, yet this has only recently attracted attention in project studies. To address social sustainability, project managers should reinforce accountability and the inclusion of ‘new voices’ in the project decision-making process. Through mixed-methods research, this paper contributes to the project stakeholder engagement discourse and normative stance of stakeholder theory concerning the role of local communities and examines the ways in which inclusion can provide a response to the sustainability challenges of major projects. Findings suggest means-ends decoupling situations where current project management practices towards communities' engagement are weakly linked to their goals and induced by convergent pressures and reactive mechanisms, thus preventing an inclusive decision-making process.     

Project management knowledge and skills for green construction: Overcoming challenges

A competent project manager is vital to project success. While many studies have examined competency of project managers, few have done so in the context of green construction. Therefore, this study aims to identify challenges faced by project managers who execute green construction projects and to determine the critical knowledge areas and skills that are necessary to respond to such challenges. Through literature review, surveys and interviews with project managers, this study will help establish a knowledge base for project managers to be competitive and to effectively execute sustainable projects.     

Intervening conditions on the management of project risk: Dealing with uncertainty in information technology projects

A review of the outcome of many information technology (IT) projects reveals that they fail to meet the pre-specified project objectives of scope, time and budget. Despite well-established project risk management processes, project managers perceive their application as ineffective to manage risk. This failure may well be attributed to the inadequate application of those risk management processes. The purpose of this research was to investigate how project managers responsible for the management of risk in IT projects actually managed risk and to relate this back to established project risk management processes. In undertaking this investigation, we were seeking to understand the ways in which the project managers’ approaches and behaviours, when considering risk in IT projects, differed from what might be expected. Results show that because of environment-related and decision maker-related conditions, project managers tend to deny, avoid, ignore and delay dealing with risk, with the consequence of those actions having an adverse influence on their perceived effectiveness of risk management and the project outcomes. If project risk management, and its underlying processes are not to be discredited, the behaviour of project managers when confronted by uncertainty should be considered and actions need to be taken to discourage project managers’ irrational actions.     

Managerial ambidexterity and the cultural toolkit in project delivery

Research has established that ambidextrous organizations can successfully outperform their non-ambidextrous counterparts through exploitative and exploratory activities. However, there remains a scarcity of research on how managers orchestrate ambidexterity at the operational level, particularly in project delivery. Drawing on 55 qualitative interviews with middle managers on two engineering projects, we examine how managerial ambidexterity is enacted at the project level. We find that middle managers enable their own exploitative, exploratory and ambidextrous behaviors by invoking a repertoire of values selected from their organization's cultural toolkit, which serve as cultural resources for action. We discuss how the cultural toolkit perspective can inform the relationship between managerial actions in day-to-day operations and organizational ambidexterity. Implications for theory and practice are presented.     

Examining the role of transformational leadership of portfolio managers in project performance

Research into the role of transformational leadership in project based organisations has generally focused on project managers or senior managers and less so on portfolio managers who oversee multiple projects to achieve business objectives. This study examines the impact of transformational leadership behaviour of portfolio managers on project performance directly and indirectly through other intervening variables such as climate for innovation and innovation championing. Using a questionnaire survey, data were obtained from 112 project managers in a UK project based organisation. Transformational leadership behaviour of portfolio managers was found to have a positive and significant relationship with project performance. Innovation championing and climate for innovation both partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and project performance. The study confirms the importance of portfolio managers in enhancing project performance and identifies the need for project based organisations to cultivate transformational leadership behaviour among them for enhanced performance. It also highlights the need for further exploration of the role of portfolio managers in improving project performance.