Numerical modeling of geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining walls with different toe restraint conditions

This paper reports numerical modeling of the prototype geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) walls corresponding to four centrifuge models that have different toe restraint conditions. The development of the interface stresses and displacements at wall toe during wall construction is investigated to understand how the toe carries load in the GRS walls with a practical toe structure. The numerical results show good agreement with the data from the centrifuge modeling. For the GRS walls with a leveling pad embedded in foundation soil, the shear resistance at the facing block-leveling pad interface acts as the toe resistance to counterbalance a portion of horizontal earth load, while the leveling pad-foundation soil interface play no role in wall performance because the soil passive resistance in front of the leveling pad inhibits the development of the shear stress and displacement on this interface. For the GRS walls with an exposed leveling pad, it is the leveling pad-foundation soil interface that works for carrying the earth load because the wall is more likely to slide along this weaker interface. The contribution of the toe to load capacity depends on the shear strength of the effective toe interface that contributes to the resistance against the earth load.     

Case history on failure of geosynthetics-reinforced soil bridge approach retaining walls

Six geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) retaining walls supporting bridge approach roads of an overpass bridge in China exhibited a series of structural problems after 18 years of service. Field investigations demonstrated that the major structural problems consist of excessive lateral facing displacement, settlement and damage of facing panels, and pavement cracks above the GRS retaining walls. The structural problems were mainly caused by inadequate backfill compaction behind the facing, rain water infiltration, the settlement of foundation soil, and reinforcement ageing. Among the six GRS walls, a 22-m-long section collapsed after mild rain in July 2016, and the failure surface in the collapsed zone was mainly located 0.5–0.9 m away from the back of facing panels along the wall height. The field investigation found that external water filtration into the backfill behind the facing panels, and the breakage of connection between reinforcement and facing panels were the main causes of the failure. The connection breakage resulted from the ageing of PP reinforcement strips, and the critical issue of PP reinforcement ageing in complex backfill environment was pinpointed. Remedial measures of the failed section and reinforcing techniques of the remaining GRS walls were briefly presented in the end.     

Numerical study of geosynthetic reinforced soil bridge abutment performance under static and seismic loading considering effects of bridge deck

Although the use of Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil (GRS) bridge abutments has been increasing, the seismic performance of such structures has remained a significant concern due to their unknown behavior in load-bearing and stress distribution under bridge load and seismic conditions simultaneously. This paper investigates the static and dynamic response of GRS bridge abutment. A series of numerical models representing the realistic field conditions of these structures, including two reinforced soil walls and a single span deck that restrains the top of walls, rather than equivalent surcharge load, was developed. The calibrated numerical model in FLAC program was used to evaluate the effects of horizontal restraint from the deck on the GRS wall displacements and reinforcement loads at the end of construction and under harmonic base acceleration up to 0.5 g. Results indicated that the restraint mobilized from the bridge deck presence, considerably affected the results at both the end of construction and after the dynamic load was applied. Moreover, a series of the parametric studies were performed to investigate the influences of backfill soil relative compaction, reinforcement stiffness, reinforcement length, and reinforcement vertical spacing on the response of GRS abutments at the end of construction and post dynamic state.     

Influence of toe restraint conditions on performance of geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls using centrifuge model tests

Current design regulations most often require use of limit equilibrium methods for the internal stability analyses of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls. However, the limit-equilibrium based approaches generally over-predict reinforcement loads for GRS walls when comparing with measured data from full-scale instrumented walls under working stress conditions. Wall toe resistance has an important influence on the performance of GRS walls but is ignored in limit equilibrium-based methods of design. This paper reports centrifuge modelling of GRS walls which have different toe restraint conditions but are otherwise identical. The GRS wall models prepared in this study isolate the influence of wall toe resistance on the performance of walls. Based on measured data from four centrifuge wall model tests, a reduction in wall toe resistance (by reducing the interface shear resistance at the base of the wall facing or removing the soil passive resistance in front of the wall toe or both) induces larger maximum facing deformation and reinforcement strain and load. The results also demonstrate that the wall models with typical toe restraint conditions are most likely operated under working stress conditions while those with poor toe restraint conditions may experience (or be close to reach) a state of limit equilibrium.     

Evaluation of the combined effect of facing inclination and uniform surcharge on GRS walls

In the current paper, using experimental studies and numerical analyses, the combined effect of facing inclination and uniform surcharge on the behaviour of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls under working stress conditions is evaluated. Data from four well-instrumented GRS walls at the end of construction and under surcharge applications were used considering different facing types, inclinations, and toe conditions. The numerical analyses were carried out considering different wall heights, facing inclinations, and surcharges. Moreover, data from the physical and numerical model studies were utilised to verify the predictability of the AASHTO simplified (2017) and Ehrlich and Mirmoradi (2016) design methods and some limitations of each method are discussed. The results clearly indicate that for better representation of the actual conditions, the uniform surcharge and facing inclination should not be independently taken into account in the design procedures.     

Effects of facing,reinforcement stiffness,toe resistance,and height on reinforced walls

This study numerically investigated the combined effect of reinforcement and facing stiffness, wall height, and toe resistance on the behavior of reinforced soil (RS) walls under working stress conditions. For RS walls with vertical segmental block facing, parametric analyses showed that the combined effect of the facing stiffness, wall height, and toe resistance on the distribution of the maximum reinforcement load with depth may be limited to approximately 4 m above the base of the wall. Furthermore, the shape of the distribution of the reinforcement load may be a function of the combined effect of the wall height, reinforcement stiffness, toe resistance, and facing stiffness. For a given facing stiffness and fixed-base conditions, increasing the height of the wall and reinforcement stiffness may change the distribution shape of the reinforcement load from trapezoidal to the triangular. Additionally, the maximum reinforcement loads calculated using finite element analyses were compared to the values predicted by design methods found in the literature. Some limitations of those design procedures are presented and discussed.     

Three-dimensional finite element analysis of geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls with turning corners

The paper presents in-depth three-dimensional finite element analyses investigating geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls with turning corners. Validation of the 3D numerical procedure was first performed via comparisons between the simulated and reported results of a benchmark physical modeling built at the Royal Military College of Canada. GRS walls with corners of 90°, 105°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180° were simulated adopting the National Concrete Masonry Association guidelines. The behaviors of the GRS walls with corners, including the lateral facing displacement, maximum reinforcement load, factor of safety, potential failure surface, vertical separation of facing blocks, and types of corners were carefully evaluated. Our comprehensive results show (i) minimum lateral displacement occurs at the corner; (ii) lower strength of reinforcements are required at the corner; (iii) higher corner angles lead to lower stability; (iv) potential failure surface forms earlier at the end walls; (v) deeper potential failure surfaces are found at the corners; (vi) larger numbers of vertical separations are found at walls with smaller corner angles. The paper highlighted the salient influence of the corners on the behaviors of GRS walls and indicated that a 3D analysis could reflect the required reinforcement length and the irregular formation of the potential failure surfaces.     

Effects of seismic amplification on the stability design of geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls

Many researches of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls under earthquakes demonstrate seismic acceleration amplification along the wall height. Current design methods of GRS walls often neglect the amplification effect on seismic stability and could yield an unconservative result. A pseudo-static method based on limit equilibrium (LE) analyses is carried out to calculate the distribution of required tension of seismic GRS walls following a top-down procedure. The connection load between the reinforcement and facing is correspondingly determined by the front-end pullout capacity. The approach assumes that the horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient varies linearly from the bottom to the top of GRS walls. The obtained results of the required tension involving the seismic amplification are in good agreement with other LE results in previous studies. Parametric studies are conducted to investigate the effects of horizontal seismic coefficient, primary and secondary reinforcement lengths and wall batter on the seismic stability of GRS walls. The seismic amplification yields more required reinforcement tension, significantly for the lower layers of the GRS wall subjected to strong earthquakes. In this situation, lengthening the bottom 1/2 of reinforcement layers could reduce the required tension to avoid tensile breakage of the reinforcements.     

Experimental study on the load bearing behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil bridge abutments with different facing conditions

This paper presents an experimental study on reduced-scale model tests of geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) bridge abutments with modular block facing, full-height panel facing, and geosynthetic wrapped facing to investigate the influence of facing conditions on the load bearing behavior. The GRS abutment models were constructed using sand backfill and geogrid reinforcement. Test results indicate that footing settlements and facing displacements under the same applied vertical stress generally increase from full-height panel facing abutment, to modular block facing abutment, to geosynthetic wrapped facing abutment. Measured incremental vertical and lateral soil stresses for the two GRS abutments with flexible facing are generally similar, while the GRS abutment with rigid facing has larger stresses. For the GRS abutments with flexible facing, maximum reinforcement tensile strain in each layer typically occurs under the footing for the upper reinforcement layers and near the facing connections for the lower layers. For the full-height panel facing abutment, maximum reinforcement tensile strains generally occur near the facing connections.     

Centrifuge modeling on the effect of mechanical connection on the dynamic performance of narrow geosynthetic reinforced soil wall

As people migrate to densely populated cities, the importance of establishing a new transportation infrastructure to meet their needs becomes increasingly critical. The limited space available for construction makes a narrow geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) wall a cost-effective alternative. Prior research has primarily examined the performance of narrow GRS walls under static loads, revealing that these structures are highly vulnerable to significant crest displacements. Consequently, multiple studies have recommended incorporating mechanical connections in the upper layer during the construction of narrow GRS walls. However, some places are more susceptible to earthquakes; hence, this research was conducted to investigate the dynamic response of narrow GRS walls and quantify the effect of mechanical connections on increasing the stability of narrow GRS walls. Two sets of narrow GRS wall models were constructed, with and without mechanical connections to a stable wall, and subjected to a similar series of earthquakes. The test results indicate that the mechanical connection can reduce the accumulated normalized horizontal displacement of narrow GRS walls by 30–80% after being subjected to the same dynamic input motion excitation.     

基于墙趾真实约束条件的模块式加筋土挡墙数值模拟

墙趾约束条件对硬质墙面加筋土挡墙性状影响显著。基于混凝土模块与级配碎石土直剪试验剪应力和剪切位移关系曲线,建立一非线性双曲线界面模型,并通过FLAC有限差分程序分析刚性地基上3.6 m高聚丙烯土工格栅加筋土挡墙在工作应力下的墙趾界面剪切特性、墙面和墙趾位移以及墙趾和筋材承担的荷载,得出在挡墙填筑过程中墙趾界面剪应力-剪切位移曲线呈上凹型;墙趾界面上的正应力、界面剪切刚度及墙趾和筋材承担的荷载随挡墙填筑高度而增大,在挡墙填筑至3.6 m时,其界面正应力是墙面模块自重应力的1.7倍,墙趾承担约87%的作用在墙背上的总水平荷载;在挡墙填筑初期由于界面剪切刚度较小,墙面和墙趾位移增大显著。较挡墙模型试验及以往数值模拟采用的墙趾恒定约束刚度,论文采用的双曲线界面模型可更好地反映挡墙墙趾与地基土真实剪切性状。     

不同构造措施混凝土空心小型砌块墙体的抗侧力性能试验研究

本文通过对混凝土小型砌块单片足尺寸墙体进行抗侧力性能对比试验 ,了解具有不同构造措施和不同结构类型的墙体在水平和垂直双向荷载作用下初始裂缝的开展部位、裂缝形态、发展规律和墙体破坏形态 ,确定了各种墙体的初裂荷载和极限荷载 ,分析了各种砌块墙体的强度和变形性能 ,明确了不同构造措施 (如芯柱和构造柱 )在提高混凝土砌块墙体的强度和变形性能方面的作用 ,为确保混凝土小型空心砌块的抗裂效果提供了理论依据。     

Experimental study on the load bearing behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil bridge abutments on yielding foundation

This paper presents an experimental study of the load bearing behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) bridge abutments constructed on yielding clay foundation. The effects of two different ground improvement methods for the yielding clay foundation, including reinforced soil foundation and stone column foundation, were evaluated. The clay foundation was prepared using kaolin and consolidated to reach desired shear strength. The 1/5-scale GRS abutment models with a height of 0.8 m were constructed using sand backfill, geogrid reinforcement, and modular block facing. For the GRS abutments on three different yielding foundations, the reinforced soil zone had relatively uniform settlement and behaved like a composite due to the higher stiffness than the foundation layers. The wall facing moved outward with significant movements near the bottom of facing, and the foundation soil in front of facing showed obvious uplifting movements. The vertical stresses transferred from the footing load within the GRS abutment and on the foundation soil are higher for stiffer foundation. The improvement of foundation soil using geosynthetic reinforced soil and stone columns could reduce the deformations of GRS abutments on yielding foundation. Results from this study provide insights on the practical applications of GRS abutments on yielding foundation.     

A Displacement Prediction Method for Retaining Walls Under Seismic Loading

This paper describes a new calculation method for seismic displacement of retaining walls. A macroscopic failure surface and a plastic displacement potential in the general load space are considered in the method to evaluate the subgrade reaction force from foundation ground. The method is capable of calculating not only horizontal, vertical or rotational displacement alone, but also their combined effect. The method is validated through comparison with centrifuge test results of a gravity retaining wall with dense backfill sand subjected to strong base shaking. The calculated displacement components, that is vertical, horizontal and rotational displacement at the end of shaking, compared well with those measured. It also appeared that previously proposed conventional displacement calculation methods based on Newmark’s sliding block analogy might underestimate the displacement. The assumption of the constant frictional coefficient may be responsible for this.The proposed method is limited to retaining walls resting on soils where dramatic degradation of soil strength due to the generation of excess pore pressure does not occur.     

Experimental study of the performance of geosynthetics-reinforced soil walls under differential settlements

The deformation performance and settlement failure mechanism of geosynthetics-reinforced soil (GRS) walls are the two key points of engineering design under the differential settlement. This paper presents model tests of deformation performance and failure mechanism of the GRS wall with and without lateral restriction under differential settlement conditions. The observation and measurement results, including force and vertical displacement of geosynthetics and lateral deformation of facing panels, indicate good settlement control performance of GRS wall during construction and under differential settlement. Results indicate that the influence of the stress state of facing panels on the settlement control performance of GRS wall cannot be ignored. And the differential settlement failure of GRS wall is likely to occur in the joint of facing panels and geosynthetics. For good illustrations, two analytical approaches about deformation and stress of geosynthetics were proposed based on elastic cable theory, in GRS wall with and without lateral restriction. The expressions exclude the necessity to carry out sophisticated numerical analyses to stress and deformation and may help to develop the design guidelines for such GRS wall.     

矿渣高性能混凝土剪力墙高温后抗震性能试验研究

本文完成了3榀受高温作用后与1榀未受高温作用的矿渣高性能混凝土剪力墙在低周反复荷载作用下的抗震性能对比试验。在对试验现象与侧向变形图分析的基础上,对比研究了试件荷载-水平位移滞回曲线,荷载-水平位移骨架曲线,耗能曲线与刚度退化曲线,并对刚度退化规律进行了函数拟合,讨论了高温后矿渣高性能混凝土剪力墙的破坏机理,研究了高温作用以及掺加聚丙烯纤维对剪力墙抗震性能的影响。试验结果表明,高温作用会降低矿渣高性能混凝土剪力墙的抗震能力,而掺加聚丙烯纤维可以显著提高矿渣高性能混凝土剪力墙高温后的抗震性能。     

Full-scale mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls under strip footing load

This study analyses two full-scale model tests on mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls. One test was conducted with a rigid and one with a flexible wall face. Other parameters were the same in these two tests, like the number and type of geogrid layers, the vertical distance between the layers and the soil type. The loads and strains on the reinforcement are measured as function of the horizontal and vertical earth pressure and compared with analytical models. Specifics regarding the behavior of the geogrids under the compaction load during the construction of the model and under strip footing load are included in the study. Results are compared with AASHTO and the empirical K-stiffness method. In this study, an analytical method is developed for the MSE walls taking into account the facing panel rigidity both after backfill construction and after strip footing load. There is good agreement between the proposed analytical method and the experimental results considering the facing panel rigidity. The results indicate that the tensile force on reinforcement layers for rigid facing is less than the flexible facing. The maximum strains in the reinforcement layers occurred in the upper layers right below the strip footing load. The maximum wall deflection for the flexible facing is more than for the rigid facing. The maximum deflection was at the top of the wall for the rigid facing and occurred at z/H?=?0.81 from top of the wall for the flexible facing.     

Analyzing the influence of facing batter on reinforcement loads of reinforced soil walls under working stress conditions

The level of reinforcement loads in a reinforced soil retaining wall is important to its satisfactory operation under working stress conditions since it basically determines the wall deformation. Consequently, proper estimation of the reinforcement load is a necessary step in the service limit-state design of this type of earth retaining structures. In this study, a force equilibrium approach is proposed to quantify the influence of facing batter on the reinforcement loads of reinforced soil walls under working stress conditions. The approach is then combined with a nonlinear elastic approach for GRS walls without batter to estimate the reinforcement loads neglecting toe restraint. The approximate average mobilized soil strength in the retaining wall is employed in the force equilibrium analysis. The predictions of reinforcement loads by the proposed method were compared to the experimental results from four large-scale tests. It is shown that the proposed semianalytical approach has the capacity to reproduce the reinforcement loads with acceptable accuracy. Some remaining issues are also pinpointed.     

混凝土小型空心砌块墙体抗剪性能数值模拟研究

对混凝土小型空心砌块砌体墙的抗剪性能进行了研究,建立了不同高宽比的混凝土小型空心砌块砌体墙有限元分析模型。对不同的高宽比的砌块砌体墙在不同的竖向荷载作用下的水平抗剪性能进行了数值分析,计算了墙体的水平开裂荷载和破坏荷载,模拟了墙体从开裂到破坏的全过程,分析了不同的竖向荷载和不同的高宽比对墙体水平抗剪性能的影响。墙体受竖向荷载和水平荷载共同作用是工程中常遇到的一种受力状态,研究砌块砌体墙在这种受力状态下的开裂过程和破坏以及高宽比对墙体的开裂与破坏的影响,对于丰富砌体结构的基本理论和工程设计具有较大意义。     

Seismic effects on reinforcement load and lateral deformation of geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls

Current design methods for the internal stability of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls postulate seismic forces as inertial forces, leading to pseudo-static analyses based on active earth pressure theory, which yields unconservative reinforcement loads required for seismic stability. Most seismic analyses are limited to the determination of maximum reinforcement strength. This study aimed to calculate the distribution of the reinforcement load and connection strength required for each layer of the seismic GRS wall. Using the top-down procedure involves all of the possible failure surfaces for the seismic analyses of the GRS wall and then obtains the reinforcement load distribution for the limit state. The distributions are used to determine the required connection strength and to approximately assess the facing lateral deformation. For sufficient pullout resistance to be provided by each reinforcement, the maximum required tensile resistance is identical to the results based on the Mononobe–Okabe method. However, short reinforcement results in greater tensile resistances in the mid and lower layers as evinced by compound failure frequently occurring in GRS walls during an earthquake. Parametric studies involving backfill friction angle, reinforcement length, vertical seismic acceleration, and secondary reinforcement are conducted to investigate seismic impacts on the stability and lateral deformation of GRS walls.