Laboratory characterization and modelling of the thermal-mechanical properties of binary soil mixtures

Binary soil mixtures are extensively used in the construction of geothermal-related earth structures such as geothermal energy piles (GEP), ground source heat pumps (GSHP) and earth air tunnel heat exchangers (EATHE). An evaluation of the binary soil’s thermal-mechanical properties is the key process in determining the final performance of geothermal-related projects. Therefore, the thermal-mechanical properties of binary soil mixtures were systematically investigated in this paper. A series of thermal and mechanical property tests was conducted on five sand-kaolin clay mixtures with sand contents ranging from 0% to 100% by dry weight. The experimental results indicated that the sand-clay mixtures achieved the theoretically densest state when the sand content reached the critical threshold. The further the binary mixture’s sand content was from the critical threshold, the lower the mixture’s density was. As the sand content increased, the shear stress-strain curves gradually shifted from strain-softening behavior to strain-hardening behavior due to the decrease in suction stress. The relationship between the sand content and the shear strength of the mixtures exhibited an “S” shape, which is attributed to the interaction between the sand and clay particles and varied with the sand contents. The shear wave velocity of the sand clay mixtures was found to decrease continuously with the increase in sand content until the sand skeleton had formed. In addition, the thermal conductivity of the binary mixed soil changed linearly with the sand content, and the upper bound of the critical threshold interval (77%) was found to separate the two different heat conduction modes. Finally, an elastic shear modulus (G₀) model, which correlated to the tangent elastic modulus of the binary mixture (E_m), and a more generalized thermal conductivity (K) model were formulated for the binary sand-clay mixtures, and the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed models were validated by comparing the values predicted with the model and the experimental data.     

Micromechanical analyses of the effect of rubber size and content on sand-rubber mixtures at the critical state

This study presents a series of monotonic drained triaxial tests consisting of mixtures of sand (stiff) and rubber (soft) particles simulated by the discrete element method (DEM). Sets of mixtures were prepared with different rubber size ratio of 1, 2.5 and 5 and contents ranging from 0% to 30% by weight. The numerical samples were sheared up to large axial strains to reach a critical state. The slope of the critical state lines is strongly affected when the rubber size is the same as sand. When rubber size increases, the critical state lines shift downward with little effect on the slope. While it is generally accepted that, for the given range of rubber contents used in the study, the sand-rubber mixture strength increases when adding rubber particles, the results from this study suggest that said strength diminishes as rubber size is incremented. Micro-scale information, including coordination number, geometrical and mechanical anisotropy, was obtained for all the tests. Regardless of the rubber particle size, rubber-sand contacts represent an important contribution to the overall strength of the material; however, the rubber particle size dictates how said contribution takes place. These findings highlight the importance of understanding new geomaterials to practicing engineers that different size ratios and rubber contents have positive or negative effect of strength and deformability and the choice of a sand-rubber mixture has to be based on the project nature.     

Performance evaluation of silty sand reinforced with fibres

Triaxial compression tests were conducted to evaluate the response of randomly distributed fibre on the strength of reinforced silty sand. In this study, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibre was mixed with silty sand soil to investigate the increase of shear strength during triaxial compression. The specimens were tested under drained and undrained conditions with 0.25% and 0.5% content of OPEFB fibres of different lengths (i.e. 15 mm, 30 mm and 45 mm). In addition, OPEFB fibres coated with acrylic butadiene styrene thermoplastic were tested to determine the effect of coating on reinforcement. Inclusion of randomly distributed discrete fibres significantly improved the shear strength of silty sand. Coated OPEFB fibres increased the shear strength of silty sand much more compared to uncoated fibres. Coating fibres increases interface friction between fibre and soil particles by increasing the surface area. Reinforced silty sand containing 0.5% coated fibres of 30 mm length exhibited approximately 25% increase in friction angle and 35% in cohesion under undrained loading conditions compared to those of unreinforced silty sand. The results indicate that the shear strength parameters of the soil-fibre mixture (i.e. Φ′ and c′) can be improved significantly.     

Sand–concrete interface response: The role of surface texture and confinement conditions

Sand–concrete interface direct shear tests were used to investigate the effects of surface roughness, surface waviness, mean sand diameter and relative density on interface strength and behavior under different confinement conditions. Extreme concrete surface textures, including smooth, rough and rough–wavy textures, were reproduced. Surface plowing was assessed via image analysis, laser scanning and extended multifocal micrographs. The experimental results showed that smooth concrete surfaces exhibited high values of interfacial–to–internal friction angle ratios, ranging 88–90%, due to the angular shape of sand particles. The rough concrete surfaces generated higher interface strength than smooth concrete surfaces; however, the interface strength was still inferior to the surrounding sand strength. Surface plowing, which identified a mixed shear plane at the sand–concrete interface, was developed as particles were detached from the surface, thus inhibiting the interface friction angle from reaching the sand friction angle. Higher sand–concrete interface strength was achieved as surface waviness increased, and interface friction angles greater than the surrounding sand friction angle were reached. Under a constant normal stiffness condition, significantly high interface strength is achieved due to the increase of the current normal stress, which was directly influenced by the initial normal stress, stiffness, surface roughness, mean sand diameter and relative density; surface waviness did not have a marked effect on the normal stress variation. Based on these results, multiple regressions were proposed to estimate the sand–concrete interface strength by the interfacial–to–internal friction angle ratio and the effect of the constant normal stiffness condition.     

Role of particle shape on the shear strength of sand-GCL interfaces under dry and wet conditions

Interface shear strength of geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) with the sand particles is predominantly influenced by the surface characteristics of the GCL, size and shape of the sand particles and their interaction mechanisms. This study brings out the quantitative effects of particle shape on the interaction mechanisms and shear strength of GCL-sand interfaces. Interface direct shear tests are conducted on GCL in contact with a natural sand and a manufactured sand of identical gradation, eliminating the particle size effects. Results showed that manufactured sand provides effective particle-fiber interlocking compared to river sand, due to the favorable shape of its grains. Further, the role of particle shape on the hydration of GCL is investigated through interface shear tests on GCL-sand interfaces at different water contents. Bentonite hydration is found to be less in tests with manufactured sand, leading to better interface shear strength. Grain shape parameters of sands, surface changes related to hydration and particle entrapment in GCL are quantified through image analysis on sands and tested GCL surfaces. It is observed that the manufactured sand provides higher interface shear strength and causes lesser hydration related damages to GCL, owing to its angular particles and low permeability.     

Effect of fly ash addition on the mechanical properties of tile adhesive

Statistical relationship between various strengths of tile adhesives in which cement or sand was partially replaced with fly ash was studied. A low-lime fly ash was used in five different replacement levels from 5% to 30% by weight of either cement or sand. The tensile adhesion, flexural and compressive strengths of adhesives were determined at 2, 7 and 28 days. In small substitution levels, sand replacement increased the tensile adhesion strength. No strong relationship was found between tensile adhesion strength and flexural or compressive strength of the specimens in which the fly ash was used as sand replacement (r < 0.659). Strong relationship was observed between the same properties when fly ash was used as cement replacement (r > 0.896). Flexural and compressive strength values showed quite strong relationship (r > 0.949). This may be due to the fact that both of these strength values were obtained on the same specimens.     

Compressibility characteristics of bio-cemented calcareous sand treated through the bio-stimulation approach

Calcareous sand is widely present in coastal areas around the world and is usually considered as a weak and unstable material due to its high compressibility and low strength. Microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a promising technique for soil improvement. However, the commonly adopted bio-augmented MICP approach is in general less compatible with the natural soil environment. Thus, this study focuses on the bio-stimulated MICP approach, which is likely to enhance the dominance of ureolytic bacteria for longer period and thus is deemed more efficient. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the compressibility of calcareous sand treated by bio-stimulated MICP approach. In the current study, a series of one-dimension compression tests was conducted on bio-cemented sand prepared via bio-stimulation with different initial relative densities (D_r). Based on the obtained compression curves and particle size distribution (PSD) curves, the parameters including cementation content, the coefficient of compressibility (a_v), PSD, relative breakage (B_r), and relative agglomeration (A_r) were discussed. The results showed that a_v decreased with the increasing cementation content. The bio-cemented sand prepared with higher initial D_r had smaller (approximately 20%–70%) a_v values than that with lower initial D_r. The specimen with higher initial D_r and higher cementation content resulted in smaller B_r but larger A_r. Finally, a conceptual framework featuring multiple contact and damage modes was proposed.     

橡胶–砂颗粒混合物强度特性及微观机制试验研究

为揭示橡胶–砂颗粒混合物强度特性变化规律和微观结构特征,通过室内直剪试验、无侧限抗压强度试验和扫描电镜试验,研究橡胶掺量、竖向应力和养护龄期等对颗粒混合物抗剪强度、内摩擦角、应力–应变关系和抗压强度的影响,同时定性评价颗粒混合物微观结构的变化,探讨橡胶–砂颗粒混合物相互作用的微观机制。结果表明:橡胶–砂颗粒混合物密度随橡胶掺量增加而线性减小;橡胶颗粒的添加会降低颗粒混合物的抗剪强度和抗压强度,内摩擦角与橡胶掺量呈线性减小关系;橡胶–砂颗粒混合物的应力–应变特征随橡胶掺量增加表现出由"脆性"向"韧性"转变的趋势;低橡胶掺量的颗粒混合物受荷介质主要是砂颗粒组成的受力链,橡胶颗粒可有效阻止砂颗粒的滑移和倾覆,高橡胶掺量的颗粒混合物主要依靠橡胶颗粒的大变形承担荷载。     

干燥及饱和橡胶砂压缩和剪切特性

将废弃轮胎作为建筑材料应用在土木工程领域是对其回收处理最有前景的方法之一。为了研究轮胎橡胶颗粒改良砂土的效果,选取橡胶颗粒与福建砂的混合土为研究对象,研究了橡胶砂的压缩和抗剪特性,分析了橡胶含量与干湿状态对橡胶砂力学特性的影响,并建立了双曲线模型预测橡胶砂受剪过程的剪应力与剪切位移关系。结果表明：橡胶砂的压缩变形随橡胶含量增大而增大,饱和橡胶砂的压缩变形明显大于干燥橡胶砂;橡胶砂的剪应力剪切位移曲线表现出应变硬化特征;橡胶砂的抗剪强度与橡胶含量的关系不大;干燥试样内摩擦角随着橡胶含量的增大而降低,饱和试样的内摩擦角随着橡胶含量的增大而轻微升高;通过双曲线模型预测的剪应力剪切位移关系曲线与试验结果吻合。     

Undrained Shear Strength of Cement-Treated Soils

In order to evaluate the effects of cementation on the mechanical properties of cement-treated soil, a series of isotropic consolidation and undrained triaxial compression shear tests were performed for cement-treated specimens of Ariake clay, Akita sand, Rokko Masado and Toyoura sand. This paper evaluates factors affecting the shear strength of these cement-treated soils. The following conclusions are obtained: 1) Cement-treated soil has a normally consolidated line in e-ln p' space which depends on the mixing cement content. The consolidation yield stress, p'_y, of cement-treated soil increases with increasing cement content and initial specimen density. 2) Changes in cohesive strength due to cement-treatment can be represented by a tensile effective stress, p'_r. Strength properties can then be normalized by the augmented consolidation stress, (p'_c+p'_r). 3) The shear strength properties of quasi-overconsolidated clay can be represented by the yield stress ratio, R=(p'_y+p'_r)/(p'_c+p'_r). 4) The undrained shear strength of cement-treated soils can be represented as a power law relation of the yield stress ratio, R, and the augmented consolidation stress.     

土石混合体的剪切面分形特征及强度产生机制

 基于考虑含石量、含水率、块石岩性、初始孔隙比、法向压力5个影响因素的土石混合体室内大型直剪试验,利用剪切面在分形几何学上的统计规律和颗粒流数值模拟方法得到的直剪试验中颗粒的相互作用规律,对土石混合体的抗剪强度产生机制进行研究。结果表明：(1) 土石混合体的剪切面呈不规则的起伏形态与块石的存在关系密切,且具有较好的分形特征,分形维数随着含石量和块石强度的增大、含水率和法向压力的减小均呈增大趋势;(2) 含石量高于40%时,黏聚力小于30 kPa;(3) 内摩擦角随着含石量的增大、块石强度的增大、含水率的降低、初始孔隙比的降低、法向压力的降低均呈增大规律,且与分形维数满足正相关函数关系;(4) 块石附近应力集中较明显,剪切过程中,颗粒间的接触力主要通过迎着剪切方向的接触面传递,而背着剪切方向的颗粒接触面基本不传递力;(5) 内摩擦角 等于剪切面上与颗粒本身接触性质有关的接触面内摩擦角 和与剪切面分形维数有关的接触面倾角 之和,利用此机制可解释直剪试验中强度参数的变化规律。     

Comparison of sand liquefaction in cyclic triaxial and simple shear tests

The liquefaction resistance and correction factors K_σ and K_α of Nakdong River sand obtained from cyclic triaxial (CTX) tests were compared with those determined by cyclic simple shear (CSS) tests to ascertain the importance of the reduction factor C_r and correction factors K_σ and K_α in liquefaction evaluations, especially in view of the lack of comparative liquefaction assessments based on different laboratory test apparatuses. All samples used for the comparisons were obtained from the same type of sand by using similar preparation methods and they were subjected to similar stress states to minimize the number of factors influencing the comparison results; moreover, the apparatuses used in the two tests were manufactured by the same company and all tests were conducted by a single operator. It was found that the liquefaction resistance in CTX tests was always greater than that in CSS tests. Furthermore, C_r varied from 0.63 to 0.36, and it depended on the relative density D_r and initial static shear ratio α. K_σ, which increased with the normal effective stress σ′_nc in CTX tests, was identical to K_σ observed in CSS tests when α was increased up to 0.1. By contrast, K_α in the CSS tests was 58%–97% of K_α measured in the CTX tests, and it depended on the combined effect of D_r, σ′_nc, and α. The relationship between K_α and α in both CTX and CSS tests was well represented by a parabolic function. Moreover, the differences in K_α values between the CTX and CSS tests were also found to be a parabolic function of α. This information can be used for converting CTX (or CSS) values into equivalent CSS (or CTX) values.     

Evaluation of compressibility and small strain stiffness characteristics of sand reinforced with discrete synthetic fibers

This experimental investigation evaluates the compressibility and small strain stiffness of sand reinforced with discrete synthetic fibers. Varying fiber contents (FC), fiber aspect ratios (AR), and void ratios were selected as testing variables in this study, and the modified oedometer tests were conducted to measure the compression index (C_c) and maximum shear modulus (G_max) of fiber-reinforced sand. The results of this study demonstrate that the C_c of the tested fiber-reinforced sand increases with an increase in FC because the packing of sand grains in the fiber-reinforced sand is very loose due to a disruption of direct contact between the sand grains due to the presence of long discrete fibers. Additionally, this disruption of direct contact between sand grains due to the fibers results in a reduction of interparticle contact and coordination number between sand grains. Therefore, the G_max of tested fiber-reinforced sand decreases with an increase in FC. Most notably, the G_max of the tested fiber-reinforced sand with varying FC and AR can be expressed as a single function of the void ratio at a given applied stress, which implies that the inclusion of fibers just alters the packing state of sand grains, and the interparticle contact stiffness is mainly determined by the contacts between sand grains.     

Characteristics of Soils with Low Plasticity: Intermediate Soil from Ishinomaki,Japan and Lean Clay From Drammen,Norway

Two soils with low plasticity are investigated; intermediate soil from Ishinomaki, Japan and lean clay from Dram- men, Norway. Since both the soils were retrieved using the Japanese sampling method, the test results from these samples are comparable. Though they have the same order of plasticity index (I_p), there is a significant difference in the grain size distribution characteristics between these soils. Ishinomaki intermediate soil contains a lot of sand or silt sized particles, its I_p value being nearly proportional to its clay content. On the other hand, Drammen clay consists of a large proportion of rock flour, which contains little clay mineral. The study shows that the unconfined compression test significantly underestimates the undrained shear strength for both soils, and their residual effective stress (p'_r) is also very low. It has been found that to compensate for loss of p'_r, recompression tests are useful methods to evaluate the strength of such soils.     

Direct shear behavior of gravel-rubber mixtures: Discrete element modeling and microscopic investigations

In this paper, a newly developed 3-dimentional discrete element model (DEM) for gravel-rubber mixtures (GRMs), namely DEM4GRM, that is capable of accurately describing the macro-scale shear response (from small to large deformation) of GRMs in a direct shear box apparatus is presented. Rigid gravel grains are modelled as simple multi-shape clumps, while soft rubber particles are modeled by using deformable 35-ball body-centered-cubic clusters. Mixtures are prepared with different volumetric rubber content (VRC) at 0, 10, 25, 40 and 100%, statically compressed under 30, 60 and 100 kPa vertical stress and then sheared, by closely simulating a reference laboratory test procedure. The variation of micro-scale factors such as fabric, normal and tangential force anisotropy is carefully examined throughout the shearing process and described by means of novel micro-mechanical relationships valid for GRMs. Moreover, strong-force chains are scrutinized to identify the transition from rigid to soft granular skeleton and gain insights on the load transfer and deformation mechanisms of GRMs. It is shown that the development of the fabric and force anisotropy during shearing is closely related to the macro-scale shear strength of GRMs, and strongly depends on the VRC. Besides, strong-force chains appear to be primarily formed by gravel-gravel contacts (resulting in a rigid-like mechanical behavior) up to VRC = 30%, and by rubber-rubber contacts (causing a soft-like mechanical response) beyond VRC = 60%. Alternatively, at 30% < VRC < 60%, gravel-rubber contacts are predominant in the strong-force network and an intermediate mechanical behavior is observed. This is consistent with the behavioral trends observed in the macro- and micro-mechanical responses.     

The role of scrap rubber particles on the drying shrinkage and mechanical properties of self-consolidating mortars

This study presents the results of an experimental investigation to study the effects of partial replacement of fine aggregate with scrap tire-rubber in self-consolidating mortar (SCM). Fresh and hardened properties of SCMs produced at five different replacement ratios of scrap rubber with sand, 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% (by weight of sand), were compared to those of without rubber. Mini slump flow and mini V-box flow time values were determined experimentally in fresh SCM. Moreover, drying shrinkage, apparent porosity, water absorption by weight, compressive and flexural strength, and dynamic modulus of elasticity were measured. While comparing the control SCMs, the partial replacement of scrap rubber with sand resulted in degradation in fresh and hardened properties. On the other hand, the addition of scrap rubber, from 10% to 40%, had a beneficial effect in decreasing the drying shrinkage of SCMs produced at low w/p (water-powder) ratios.     

Behavior evaluation of geogrid-reinforced ballast-subballast interface under shear condition

The effective functioning of a railway track under operating conditions depends largely on the performance of various rail track interfaces (e.g. ballast-subballast interface, subballast-subgrade interface). In this context, a series of large-scale direct shear tests were conducted to investigate the shear behavior of unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced ballast-subballast interfaces at different normal stresses (σ_n) and rates of shearing (S_r). Fresh granite ballast and subballast having average particle size (D₅₀) of 42?mm and 3.5?mm respectively, and five geogrids with different aperture shapes and sizes were used in this study. Tests were performed at different normal stresses (σ_n) ranging from 20 to 100?kPa and shearing rates (S_r) ranging from 2.5 to 10.0?mm/min. The laboratory test results confirmed that the shear strength of ballast-subballast interface was highly influenced by the applied normal stress (σ_n) and rate of shearing (S_r). The friction angle (φ) of unreinforced ballast-subballast interface was found to decrease from 63.24° to 47.82° and dilation angle (ψ) from 14.56° to 5.23° as the values of σ_n and S_r increased from 20 to 100?kPa and 2.5–10.0?mm/min, respectively. Further, the breakage of ballast (B_g) was found to increase from 2.84 to 6.69%. However, geogrid inclusions enhanced the shear strength of the ballast-subballast interface and also reduced the extent of B_g. The results indicate that it is possible to establish a relationship between the friction angle (φ) and breakage of ballast (B_g), wherein the friction angle (φ) of both unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced interfaces reduces with the increase in breakage (B_g). The interface efficiency factor, defined as the ratio of the shear strength of the geogrid-reinforced ballast-subballast interface to the original shear strength of ballast-subballast interface varies from 1.04 to 1.22. Moreover, the current study revealed that the shear behavior of ballast-subballast interface was influenced by geogrid aperture size (A).     

基于大型直剪试验的高炉矿渣粉煤灰混合料力学特性研究

依托包钢新体系2 250 mm热轧车间的地基处理工程对混合料的力学特性进行研究;借助大型直剪仪对不同围压和含水率的混合料进行直剪试验,分析了混合料在不同条件下的抗剪强度、力学参数以及从混合料剪切“翻滚 跳跃”现象的角度对相应的剪应力 剪切位移关系曲线上下波动情况进行分析;通过线性回归分析得到含水率与粘结力和内摩擦角的关系曲线。结果表明:当含水率相同时,随着法向应力的增加,混合料的抗剪强度峰值逐渐增大;相同法向应力作用下,随着含水率的增加,混合料的抗剪强度逐渐降低;随着含水率的增加,粘结力和内摩擦角逐渐降低,并且含水率的变化对粘结力的影响程度较内摩擦角大;当剪切位移处于试样长度的1/60~1/10时,剪切“翻滚 跳跃”现象最为明显,相应的剪应力 剪切位移曲线所出现的上下波动幅度也最大。     

废轮胎颗粒-砂混合物双轴压缩力学特性细观机理研究

轮胎颗粒-砂混合物(简称橡胶砂)是一种典型的二元散体混合材料,关于其细观变形机制的研究还很少。基于颗粒流理论和PFC^2D程序,建立橡胶砂的双轴压缩试验数值模型。通过与室内橡胶砂三轴CD剪切试验的对照,标定橡胶颗粒和砂颗粒细观参数。以砂的体积百分比为配比参数,分析不同配比橡胶砂的偏应力-轴向应变曲线,基于对混合物试样颗粒旋转、力链结构和能量耗散规律的讨论,研究橡胶砂的细观变形机理。结果表明:1)橡胶砂的细观变形机制可归结为具有良好变形能力的橡胶颗粒对砂颗粒的粒间相对错动、翻滚等位移的延缓和抑制作用;2)当橡胶颗粒体积含量在30%~40%之间时,橡胶砂的强力链随着应变的增大而持续增大,其受荷-变形能力关系最为稳定,是橡胶砂的最佳配比。同时,本文对橡胶砂力学特性的参数敏感性研究表明,砂细观泊松比、细观剪切模量、颗粒摩擦系数对橡胶砂应力-应变特性的影响程度大小依次增大,但随着橡胶颗粒含量的增加,三个参数的影响程度均降低。     

Effect of shearing rate on the behavior of geogrid-reinforced railroad ballast under direct shear conditions

A series of large-scale direct shear tests were conducted to investigate the behavior of unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced ballast at different rates of shearing. Fresh granite ballast with an average particle size (D₅₀) of 42?mm and five geogrids having different aperture shapes and sizes was used in this study. Tests were performed at different normal stresses (σ_n) ranging from 35?kPa to 140?kPa and at different rates of shearing (S_r) ranging from 2.5 to 10.0?mm/min. The laboratory test results revealed that the shear strength of ballast was significantly influenced by the rate of shearing. The internal friction angle of ballast (φ) was found to decrease from 66.5° to 58° when the shearing rate (S_r) was increased from 2.5 to 10.0?mm/min. It is further observed that the interface shear strength has improved significantly when the ballast was reinforced with geogrids. The interface efficiency factor (α), defined as the ratio of the shear strength of the interface to the internal shear strength of ballast, varies from 0.83 to 1.06. The sieve analysis of samples after the testing reveals that a significant amount of particle breakage occurs during shearing. The value of breakage, evaluated in terms of Marsal's breakage index (B_g), increases from 5.12 to 13.24% with an increase in shearing rates from 2.5 to 10.0?mm/min. Moreover, the influence of aperture shape and size of geogrid on the behavior of ballast-geogrid interfaces was also examined in this study.