Large-vscale hydrogen production and storage technologies: Current status and future directions

Over the past years, hydrogen has been identified as the most promising carrier of clean energy. In a world that aims to replace fossil fuels to mitigate greenhouse emissions and address other environmental concerns, hydrogen generation technologies have become a main player in the energy mix. Since hydrogen is the main working medium in fuel cells and hydrogen-based energy storage systems, integrating these systems with other renewable energy systems is becoming very feasible. For example, the coupling of wind or solar systems hydrogen fuel cells as secondary energy sources is proven to enhance grid stability and secure the reliable energy supply for all times. The current demand for clean energy is unprecedented, and it seems that hydrogen can meet such demand only when produced and stored in large quantities. This paper presents an overview of the main hydrogen production and storage technologies, along with their challenges. They are presented to help identify technologies that have sufficient potential for large-scale energy applications that rely on hydrogen. Producing hydrogen from water and fossil fuels and storing it in underground formations are the best large-scale production and storage technologies. However, the local conditions of a specific region play a key role in determining the most suited production and storage methods, and there might be a need to combine multiple strategies together to allow a significant large-scale production and storage of hydrogen.     

Prospects for the production of green hydrogen: Review of countries with high potential

The article provides a review of the current hydrogen production and the prospects for the development of the production of “green” hydrogen using renewable energy sources in various countries of the world that are leaders in this field. The potential of hydrogen energy in such countries and regions as Australia, the European Union, India, Canada, China, the Russian Federation, United States of America, South Korea, the Republic of South Africa, Japan and the northern countries of Africa is considered. These countries have significant potential for the production of hydrogen and “green” hydrogen, in particular through mining of fossil fuels and the use of renewable energy sources. The quantitative indicators of the production of “green” hydrogen in the future and the direction of its export are considered; the most developed hydrogen technologies in these countries are presented. The production of “green” hydrogen in most countries is the way to transition from the consumption of fossil fuels to the clean energy of the future, which will significantly improve the environmental situation, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the energy independence of the regions.     

Prospects and challenges for green hydrogen production and utilization in the Philippines

The Philippines is exploring different alternative sources of energy to make the country less dependent on imported fossil fuels and to reduce significantly the country's CO₂ emissions. Given the abundance of renewable energy potential in the country, green hydrogen from renewables is a promising fuel because it can be utilized as an energy carrier and can provide a source of clean and sustainable energy with no emissions. This paper aims to review the prospects and challenges for the potential use of green hydrogen in several production and utilization pathways in the Philippines. The study identified green hydrogen production routes from available renewable energy sources in the country, including geothermal, hydropower, wind, solar, biomass, and ocean. Opportunities for several utilization pathways include transportation, industry, utility, and energy storage. From the analysis, this study proposes a roadmap for a green hydrogen economy in the country by 2050, divided into three phases: I–green hydrogen as industrial feedstock, II–green hydrogen as fuel cell technology, and III–commercialization of green hydrogen. On the other hand, the analysis identified several challenges, including technical, economic, and social aspects, as well as the corresponding policy implications for the realization of a green hydrogen economy that can be applied in the Philippines and other developing countries.     

Techno-economical evaluation of a hydrogen refuelling station powered by Wind-PV hybrid power system: A case study for İzmir-Çeşme

Hydrogen fuelling station is an infrastructure for the commercialisation of hydrogen energy utilising fuel cells, particularly, in the automotive sector. Hydrogen fuel produced by renewable sources such as the solar and wind energy can be an alternative fuel to depress the use of fuels based on fossil sources in the transport sector for sustainable clean energy strategy in future. By replacing the primary fuel with hydrogen fuel produced using renewable sources in road transport sector, environmental benefits can be achieved. In the present study, techno-economic analysis of hydrogen refuelling station powered by wind-photovoltaics (PV) hybrid power system to be installed in ?zmir-Çe?me, Turkey is performed. This analysis is carried out to a design of hydrogen refuelling station which is refuelling 25 fuel cell electric vehicles on a daily basis using hybrid optimisation model for electric renewable (HOMER) software. In this study, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) surface meteorology and solar energy database were used. Therefore, the average wind speed during the year was assessed to be 5.72 m/s and the annual average solar irradiation was used to be 5.08 kW h/m²/day for the considered site. According to optimisation results obtained for the proposed configuration, the levelised cost of hydrogen production was found to be US $7.526–7.866/kg in different system configurations. These results show that hydrogen refuelling station powered by renewable energy is economically appropriate for the considered site. It is expected that this study is the pre-feasibility study and obtained results encougare the hydrogen refuelling station to be established in Turkey by inventors or public institutions.     

On the wind energy in Turkey

Increase in negative effects of fossil fuels on the environment has forced many countries, including Turkey, to use renewable energy sources. Today, clean, domestic and renewable energy is commonly accepted as the key for future life, not only for Turkey but also for the world. As wind energy is an alternative clean energy source compared to the fossil fuels that pollute the atmosphere, systems that convert wind energy to electricity have developed rapidly. Turkey is an energy importing country, more than half of the energy requirement has been supplied by imports. Turkey's domestic fossil fuel resources are extremely limited. In addition, Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of wind power. In this context, renewable energy resources appear to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution prevention in Turkey. Since wind energy will be used more and more in the future, its current potential, usage, and assessment in Turkey is the focus of the present study. The paper not only presents a review of the potential and utilization of the wind power in Turkey but also provides some guidelines for policy makers.     

“Green” path from fossil-based to hydrogen economy: An overview of carbon-neutral technologies

While the dominant role of hydrogen in a sustainable energy future is widely accepted, the strategies for the transition from fossil-based to hydrogen economy are still actively debated. This paper emphasizes the role of carbon-neutral technologies and fuels during the transition period. To satisfy the world's growing appetite for energy and keep our planet healthy, at least 10 TW (or terawatt) of carbon-free power has to be produced by mid-century. Three prominent options discussed in the literature include: decarbonization of fossil energy, nuclear energy and renewable energy sources. These options are analyzed in this paper with a special emphasis on the role of hydrogen as a carbon-free energy carrier. In particular, the authors compare various fossil decarbonization strategies and evaluate the potential of nuclear and renewable energy resources to meet the 10 TW target. An overview of state-of-the-art technologies for production of carbon-free energy carriers and transportation fuels, and the assessment of their commercial potential is provided. It is shown that neither of these three options alone could provide 10 TW of carbon-neutral power without major changes in the existing infrastructure, and/or technological breakthroughs in many areas, and/or a considerable environmental risk. The authors propose a scenario for the transition from current fossil-based to hydrogen economy that includes two key elements: (i) changing the fossil decarbonization strategy from one based on CO₂ sequestration to one that involves sequestration and/or utilization of solid carbon, and (ii) producing carbon-neutral synthetic fuels from bio-carbon and hydrogen generated from water using carbon-free sources (nuclear, solar, wind, geothermal). This strategy would allow taking advantage of the existing fuel infrastructure without an adverse environmental impact, and it would secure a smooth carbon-neutral transition from fossil-based to future hydrogen economy.     

Integration and economic viability of fueling the future with green hydrogen: An integration of its determinants from renewable economics

The volatility of fossil fuel and their increased consumption have exacerbated the socio-economic dilemma along with electricity expenses in third world countries around the world, Pakistan in particular. In this research, we study the output of renewable hydrogen from natural sources like wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power. It also provides rules and procedures in an attempt to determine the current situation of Pakistan regarding the workability of upcoming renewable energy plans. To achieve this, four main criteria were assessed and they are economic, commercial, environmental, and social adoption. The method used in this research is the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchical Process (FAHP), where we used first-order engineering equations, and Levelized cost electricity to produce renewable hydrogen. The value of renewable hydrogen is also evaluated. The results of the study indicate that wind is the best option in Pakistan for manufacturing renewable based on four criteria. Biomass is found to be the most viable raw material for the establishment of the hydrogen supply network in Pakistan, which can generate 6.6 million tons of hydrogen per year, next is photovoltaic solar energy, which has the capability of generating 2.8 million tons. Another significant finding is that solar energy is the second-best candidate for hydrogen production taking into consideration its low-cost installation and production. The study shows that the cost of using hydrogen in Pakistan ranges from $5.30/kg to $5.80/kg, making it a competitive fuel for electric machines. Such projects for producing renewable power must be highlighted and carried out in Pakistan and this will lead to more energy security for Pakistan, less use of fossil fuels, and effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.     

Modeling of hydrogen production with a stand-alone renewable hybrid power system

Hydrocarbon resources adequately meet today’s energy demands. Due to the environmental impacts, renewable energy sources are high in the agenda. As an energy carrier, hydrogen is considered one of the most promising fuels for its high energy density as compared to hydrocarbon fuels. Therefore, hydrogen has a significant and future use as a sustainable energy system. Conventional methods of hydrogen extraction require heat or electrical energy. The main source of hydrogen is water, but hydrogen extraction from water requires electrical energy. Electricity produced from renewable energy sources has a potential for hydrogen production systems. In this study, an electrolyzer using the electrical energy from the renewable energy system is used to describe a model, which is based on fundamental thermodynamics and empirical electrochemical relationships. In this study, hydrogen production capacity of a stand-alone renewable hybrid power system is evaluated. Results of the proposed model are calculated and compared with experimental data. The MATLAB/Simscape^® model is applied to a stand-alone photovoltaic-wind power system sited in Istanbul, Turkey.     

Climate changes,biofuels and the sustainable future

Climate change is one of the most dangerous problems of the contemporary world. We can either adapt to the corresponding changes or try to reduce their impact by significantly reducing fossil fuel burning. A hydrogen-based economy using energy from biomass, solar, wind and other renewable sources and/or nuclear energy seems to be a viable alternative. Here we analyse the possibilities of the biofuels to replace fossil fuels and their potential to contribute to hydrogen economy.     

A review on hydrogen production and utilization: Challenges and opportunities

Environment-friendly, safe and reliable energy supplies are indispensable to society for sustainable development and high life quality where even though social, environmental, political and economic challenges may play a vital role in their provision. Our continuously growing energy demand is driven by extensive growth in economic development and population and places an ever-increasing burden on fossil fuel utilization that represent a substantial percentage of this increasing energy demand but also creates challenges associated with increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Such challenges make the global transition obligatory from conventional to renewable energy sources. Hydrogen is emerging as a new energy vector outside its typical role and receiving more recognition globally as a potential fuel pathway, as it offers advantages in use cases and unlike synthetic carbon-based fuels can be truly carbon neutral or even negative on a life cycle basis. This review paper provides critical analysis of the state-of-the-art in blue and green hydrogen production methods using conventional and renewable energy sources, utilization of hydrogen, storage, transportation, distribution and key challenges and opportunities in the commercial deployment of such systems. Some of the key promising renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen, such as solar and wind, are intermittent; hydrogen appears to be the best candidate to be employed for multiple purposes blending the roles of fuel energy carrier and energy storage modality. Furthermore, this study offers a comparative assessment of different non-renewable and renewable hydrogen production systems based on system design, cost, global warming potential (GWP), infrastructure and efficiency. Finally the key challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen production, storage, transportation and distribution and commercial-scale deployment are addressed.     

Synergistic roles of off-peak electrolysis and thermochemical production of hydrogen from nuclear energy in Canada

Hydrogen as a clean energy carrier is frequently identified as a major solution to the environmental problem of greenhouse gases, resulting from worldwide dependence on fossil fuels. However, most of the world's hydrogen (about 96%) is currently produced from fossil fuels, which does not address the issue of greenhouse gases. Although there is a large motivation of the “hydrogen economy”, for improvement of urban air quality, energy security, and integration of intermittent renewable energy sources, CO₂ free energy sources are critical to hydrogen becoming a significant energy carrier. Two technologies, applied in tandem, have a promising potential to generate hydrogen without leading to greenhouse gas emissions: 1) electrolysis and 2) thermochemical decomposition of water. This paper will investigate their unique complementary roles to reduce costs of hydrogen production. Together they have a unique potential to serve both de-centralized hydrogen needs in periods of low-demand electricity, and centralized base-load production from a nuclear station. Thermochemical methods have a significantly higher thermal efficiency, but electrolysis can take advantage of low electricity prices during off-peak hours, as well as intermittent and de-centralized supplies like wind, solar or tidal power. By effectively linking these systems, water-based production of hydrogen can become more competitive against the predominant existing technology, SMR (steam-methane reforming).     

Exergy analysis of renewable energy sources

Oil crises in the past years made more obvious the dependency of economies on fossil fuels. As a consequence, the need for new energy sources became more urgent. Renewable energy sources could provide a solution to the problem, as they are inexhaustible and have less adverse impacts on the environment than fossil fuels. Yet, renewable energy sources technology has not reached a high standard at which it can be considered competitive to fossil fuels. The present study deals with the exergy analysis of solar energy, wind power and geothermal energy. That is, the actual use of energy from the existing available energy is discussed. In addition, renewable energy sources are compared with the non-renewable energy sources on the basis of efficiency.     

Hydrogen production through renewable and non-renewable energy processes and their impact on climate change

The urbanization and increase in the human population has significantly influenced the global energy demands. The utilization of non-renewable fossil fuel-based energy infrastructure involves air pollution, global warming due to CO₂ emissions, greenhouse gas emissions, acid rains, diminishing energy resources, and environmental degradation leading to climate change due to global warming. These factors demand the exploration of alternative energy sources based on renewable sources. Hydrogen, an efficient energy carrier, has emerged as an alternative fuel to meet energy demands and green hydrogen production with zero carbon emission has gained scientific attraction in recent years. This review is focused on the production of hydrogen from renewable sources such as biomass, solar, wind, geothermal, and algae and conventional non-renewable sources including natural gas, coal, nuclear and thermochemical processes. Moreover, the cost analysis for hydrogen production from each source of energy is discussed. Finally, the impact of these hydrogen production processes on the environment and their implications are summarized.     

Emerging technologies by hydrogen: A review

The majority of energy being used is obtained from fossil fuels, which are not renewable resources and require a longer time to recharge or return to its original capacity. Energy from fossil fuels is cheaper but it faces some challenges compared to renewable energy resources. Thus, one of the most potential candidates to fulfil the energy requirements are renewable resources and the most environmentally friendly fuel is Hydrogen. Hydrogen is a clean and efficient energy carrier and a hydrogen-based economy is now widely regarded as a potential solution for the future of energy security and sustainability. Hydrogen energy became the most significant energy as the current demand gradually starts to increase. It is an important key solution to tackle the global temperature rise. The key important factor of hydrogen production is the hydrogen economy. Hydrogen production technologies are commercially available, while some of these technologies are still under development. Therefore, the global interest in minimising the effects of greenhouse gases as well as other pollutant gases also increases. In order to investigate hydrogen implementation as a fuel or energy carrier, easily obtained broad-spectrum knowledge on a variety of processes is involved as well as their advantages, disadvantages, and potential adjustments in making a process that is fit for future development. Aside from directly using the hydrogen produced from these processes in fuel cells, streams rich with hydrogen can also be utilised in producing ethanol, methanol, gasoline as well as various chemicals of high value. This paper provided a brief summary on the current and developing technologies of hydrogen that are noteworthy.     

Wind energy,electricity, and hydrogen in the Netherlands

The curbing of greenhouse gases (GHG) is an important issue on the international political agenda. The substitution of fossil fuels by renewable energy sources is an often-advocated mitigation strategy. Wind energy is a potential renewable energy source. However, wind energy is not reliable since its electricity production depends on variable weather conditions. High wind energy penetration rates lead to losses due to power plant operation adjustments to wind energy. This research identifies the potential energetic benefits of integrated hydrogen production in electricity systems with high wind energy penetration. This research concludes that the use of system losses for hydrogen production via electrolysis is beneficial in situations with ca. 8 GW or more wind energy capacity in the Netherlands. The 2020 Dutch policy goal of 6 GW will not benefit from hydrogen production in terms of systems efficiency. An ancillary beneficial effect of coupling hydrogen production with wind energy is to relieve the high-voltage grid.     

Analysis of the wind energy market in Denmark and future interactions with an emerging hydrogen market

The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is critical to reduce future emissions and mitigate the consequences hereof. Yet, the expansion of renewable energy, especially the highly fluctuating production of wind energy, poses economic challenges to the existing energy system in Denmark. This paper investigates the economic feasibility of integrating a 250 kW, 500 kW, 750 kW and 1 MW water electrolysis system in the existing Danish energy market to exploit excessive off- and onshore wind energy for hydrogen production used as fuel for transportation purposes. In 2018, Danish wind turbines produced excess energy during 1238 h, which poses a capacity constraint as the electrolysis systems are limited to only produce hydrogen for 14% of the total available annual hours. This paper concludes that the net present value of each investment is negative as the fixed and variable production costs exceeds the generated revenues and it is therefore not economical feasible to invest in an electrolysis system with the purpose of only operating whenever excess off- and onshore wind energy is available.     

Economic viability and production capacity of wind generated renewable hydrogen

Generally, wind to power conversion is calculated by assuming the quality of wind as measured with a Weibull probability distribution at wind speed during power generation. We build on this method by modifying the Weibull distributions to reflect the actual range of wind speeds and wind energy density. This was combined with log law that modifies wind speed based on the height from the ground, to derive the wind power potential at windy sites. The study also provides the Levelized cost of renewable energy and hydrogen conversion capacity at the proposed sites. We have also electrolyzed the wind-generated electricity to measure the production capacity of renewable hydrogen. We found that all the sites considered are commercially viable for hydrogen production from wind-generated electricity. Wind generated electricity cost varies from $0.0844 to $0.0864 kW h, and the supply cost of renewable hydrogen is $5.30 to $ 5.80/kg-H₂. Based on the findings, we propose a policy on renewable hydrogen fueled vehicles so that the consumption of fossil fuels could be reduced. This paper shall serve as a complete feasibility study on renewable hydrogen production and utilization.     

Prospects and challenges of renewable hydrogen generation in Bangladesh

The collective endeavor in reaching net-zero emissions by 2050 and halting the impending effects of global warming has found a promising solution-hydrogen, a clean energy carrier with diversified applications. It is practical to transition H₂ production at scale from fossil fuels to renewable sources. The choice of appropriate hydrogen production route from renewables would regionally vary, depending on various factors. While a majority of the developed countries have kickstarted their transition towards a hydrogen economy, developing countries like Bangladesh have been lagging. This review explores the potential of a hydrogen-based energy system for Bangladesh - commencing with a technological comparison of existing production paths from renewable resources; then moving on to a preliminary analysis of its available resources and technology options. Finally, a roadmap toward a hydrogen economy is envisioned, as the foundation for further study and public policy initiatives aimed at hastening Bangladesh's transition to a carbon-free energy system.     

Feasibilty study of renewable energy powered seawater desalination technology using natural vacuum technique

With an ever-increasing population and rapid growth of industrialization, there is great demand for fresh water. Desalination has been a key proponent to meet the future challenges due to decreasing availability of fresh water. However, desalination uses significant amount of energy, today mostly from fossil fuels. It is, therefore, reasonable to rely on renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, ocean thermal energy, waste heat from the industry and other renewable sources. The present study deals with the energy-efficient seawater desalination system utilizing renewable energy sources and natural vacuum technique. A new desalination technology named Natural Vacuum Desalination is proposed. The novel desalination technique achieve remarkable energy efficiency through the evaporation of seawater under vacuum and will be described in sufficient detail to demonstrate that it requires much less electric energy compared to any conventional desalination plant of fresh water production of similar capacity. The discussion will highlight the main operative and maintenance features of the proposed natural vacuum seawater desalination technology which seems to have promising techno-economic potential providing also advantageous coupling with renewable energy sources.     

The feasibility of manufacturing wind turbines in Iran

It is known that the supplies of fossil fuels are limited and their utilization as energy sources causes environmental degradation due to incomplete combustion when used as energy source, in addition to this as the world population increases the demand for energy sources increases, therefore the issue of a gradual replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources is of major consideration for most countries: Iran Bing located in Asian Middle East enjoys a great potential for producing some 6500 MW of electricity with wind energy. The feasibility of manufacturing wind turbines is investigated in this article.