In-plane Thermal Conductivity Measurement with Nanosecond Grating Imaging Technique

We develop a nanosecond grating imaging (NGI) technique to measure in-plane thermal transport properties in bulk and thin-film samples. Based on nanosecond time-domain thermoreflectance (ns-TDTR), NGI incorporates a photomask with periodic metal strips patterned on a transparent dielectric substrate to generate grating images of pump and probe lasers on the sample surface, which induces heat conduction along both cross- and in-plane directions. Analytical and numerical models have been developed to extract thermal conductivities in both bulk and thin-film samples from NGI measurements. This newly developed technique is used to determine thickness-dependent in-plane thermal conductivities (κ_x) in Cu nano-films, which agree well with the electron thermal conductivity values converted from four-point electrical conductivity measurements using the Wiedemamn–Franz law, as well as previously reported experimental values. The κ_x measured with NGI in an 8 nm x 8 nm GaAs/AlAs superlattice (SL) is about 10.2 W/m?K, larger than the cross-plane thermal conductivity (8.8 W/m?K), indicating the anisotropic thermal transport in the SL structure. The uncertainty of the measured κ_x is about 25% in the Cu film and less than 5% in SL. Sensitivity analysis suggests that, with the careful selection of proper substrate and interface resistance, the uncertainty of κ_x in Cu nano-films can be as low as 5%, showing the potential of the NGI technique to determine κ_x in thin films with improved accuracy. By simply installing a photomask into ns-TDTR, NGI provides a convenient, fast, and cost-effective method to measure the in-plane thermal conductivities in a wide range of structures and materials.     

宽温域中碳纤维导热特性研究

碳纤维作为一种被广泛应用的微纳米材料,对其导热性能的测量研究一直被作为对碳纤维性能研究的重要内容。在利用氦气的气体液化基础上搭建的超低温实验环境中,基于瞬态电热法对处于290到10 K温度内的碳纤维样品的导热性能进行研究。实验发现,当实验温度低于某一特定温度后,材料的热扩散率表现出与声子散射分析相反的实验结果。通过引入热扩散系数倒数这一理论研究声子热阻在低温下的变化,分析得出,当实验环境温度低于某一特定温度后,低温会造成碳纤维材料内的石墨微晶体结构发生变化,从而造成材料热扩散率下降。     

Thermal Stresses in Multilayer Gun Barrel with Interlayer Thermal Contact Resistance

A hybrid numerical method of the Laplace transformation and the finite difference is applied to solve the transient heat transfer problem of a gun barrel, in which the interlayer thermal contact resistance between the steel cylinder and the chrome coating is taken into account in the boundary conditions. The general solutions of the governing equations are first solved in the transform domain. Then the inversion to the real domain is completed by the method of Fourier series technique. The transient distributions of temperature and thermal stresses for the gun barrel in the real domain are calculated numerically.     

光学热带法测量固态材料热物性研究

针对接触式瞬态热带法测量导热系数时,加热丝和样品间接触热阻,会影响实验测量结果以及对固体样品形状大小要求较高的现状,根据瞬态热带法原理,本文提出了一种光学瞬态热带法来测量固体材料的导热系数。采用连续激光为加热源,通过透镜将光斑放大并聚焦照射在样品表面,实现样品非接触式测量。构建二维导热模型,采用红外热像仪记录样品表面温升随时间的变化关系,根据导热理论模型求出待测样品的热扩散系数及导热系数。以K9和石英玻璃为样品对本套测量方法进行验证,制备并测量了纯石蜡、0.5%和1%石墨烯-石蜡的固态复合相变材料的导热系数,探讨了影响实验结果的潜在因素。     

石墨烯泡沫热物性与界面热导温度相关性研究

石墨烯泡沫是将石墨烯立体化形成的复合材料,在锂离子电池等领域有较好的应用前景,而其导热性质成为限制工业应用的重要因素。基于瞬态电热技术,研究了石墨烯泡沫的导热性质及其随温度的变化。结果表明,不同于Umklapp声子散射机理,石墨烯泡沫的热导率随温度呈正相关性:由室温至373 K时,热导率由0.71升高至1.10 W/(m·K)。分析发现,泡沫内部的大量界面是其低导热性质的主要因素。利用分子动力学模拟验证了石墨烯与基体材料间的界面传热随温度成正相关,与宏观材料测量结果相符。     

Sequential estimation of borehole resistance and ground thermal properties through thermal response test

Borehole thermal resistance and ground thermal properties (thermal conductivity and heat capacity) are the key parameters to implement the ground source heat pump (GSHP), usually obtained by thermal response test. In this study, a novel sequential parameters estimation method for the above three parameters is proposed, and the sensitivity analysis by using a special correlation method is performed to decide the best estimation sequences. At first, the Spearman partial rank correlation coefficient was used to represent the correlation between the estimated thermal properties and fluid temperature for the line source model (ILS), then the estimation sequence for the three parameters could be determined by the correlation results. Lastly, with the estimation step, Monte Carlo method was adopted to determine the parameters replacing conventional iterative algorithms. In addition, the effect of value bounds and initial inputs as well as random samples was investigated. The results showed that compared to the other estimation steps, the estimation sequence following borehole resistance firstly, then thermal conductivity, heat capacity lastly could get the best precision with 4.5%, 0.4%, 1% respectively. Specially, the estimation precision for ground heat capacity could be promoted by the sequential estimation. Also, the effect of value bounds on estimation precision was nearly eliminated by the proposed method.     

固体表面之间接触热阻的辨识研究

介绍了接触热阻的测量原理和传统的实验装置。从接触界面热耦合的角度，结合传热方程的数值解法和参数辨识方法，对实验数据进行整理。通过与文献中数据的对比，说明本方法的可行性。此方法对热物性变化较明显的实验，更能体现出优越性。     

接触热阻的方法在活塞组耦合模型有限元分析中的应用

在有限元分析中，与单件模型相比，耦合模型的分析结果更加精确。本文建立了活塞、活塞环、活塞销、缸套的耦合模型，采用接触对、设定接触热阻的方法对耦合模型进行了二维和三维瞬态温度场的分析。通过计算结果与测量值的对比，表明耦合模型的瞬态分析通过设定接触热阻的方法能够精确地反映活塞组的热负荷分布情况。     

Critical analysis of the experimental determination of the thermal resistance of metal foams

This paper addresses experimental and numerical analysis of the thermal resistance of M-Pore® copper foam. The findings suggest a separation of the thermal resistance into two components: material resistance and contact resistance. Finite element analysis is used to calculate the thermal material resistance. Calculation models are based on micro-computed tomography data in order to account for the complex material geometry. The same samples are used for experimental analysis. A transient method is applied where a time-dependent temperature change is related to the thermal resistance. In addition to material resistance, experimental measurement values inevitably include thermal contact resistance. Although a thermally conducting paste is used in order to minimise this effect, a significant thermal contact resistance is found. As a result, the experimentally measured thermal resistance can no longer be considered as a material property but depends on the sample size and the particular shape of the contact surfaces. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the traditional approach to experimentally obtain thermal contact resistance by changing the specimen size is impractical for cellular metals. Instead, the contact resistance is obtained by comparing experimental and numerical results.     

Monitoring of transient 3D temperature distribution and thermal stress in pressure elements based on the wall temperature measurement

Abstract

Two methods for monitoring the thermal stresses in pressure components of thermal power plants are presented. In the first method, the transient temperature distribution in the pressure component is determined by measuring the transient wall temperature at several points located on the outer insulated surface of the component. The transient temperature distribution in the pressure component, including the temperature of the inner surface is determined from the solution of the inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP). In the first method, there is no need to know the temperature of the fluid and the heat transfer coefficient. In the second method, thermal stresses in a pressure component with a complicated shape are computed using the finite element method (FEM) based on experimentally estimated fluid temperature and known heat transfer coefficient. A new thermometer with good dynamic properties has been developed and applied in practice, providing a much more accurate measurement of the temperature of the flowing fluid in comparison with standard thermometers. The heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface of a pressure element can be determined from the empirical relationships available in the literature. A numerical-experimental method of determination of the transient heat transfer coefficient based on the solution of the 3D-inverse heat conduction problem has also been proposed. The heat transfer coefficient on the internal surface of a pressure element is determined based on an experimentally determined local transient temperature distribution on the external surface of the element or the basis of wall temperature measurement at six points located near the internal surface if fluid temperature changes are fast. Examples of determining thermal and pressure stresses in the thick-walled horizontal superheater header and the horizontal header of the steam cooler in a power boiler with the use of real measurement data are presented.     

太阳电池用Mo纳米薄膜结构演化及热膨胀分子动力学模拟

基于改进嵌入原子法(MAEAM)对Mo纳米薄膜进行了分子动力学(MD)模拟。研究表明,随着温度的上升,薄膜中原子振动变得剧烈,体系混乱程度增加;纳米薄膜的熔点与块体相比明显降低,当薄膜厚度为2.448nm时,其熔点从2895K下降到1800K。纳米薄膜热膨胀系数随温度的升高呈非线性增加,但是在相同温度下,纳米薄膜的膨胀系数比块体的大,并且尺寸越小,热膨胀系数越大,对于厚1.56nm的薄膜其热膨胀系数几乎是块体的两倍,呈现出明显的尺寸效应。比较Mo纳米薄膜与CuInGaSe(CIGS)晶体的膨胀系数,发现在很大温度范围内其差值仅约为15%,说明在薄膜太阳电池中采用Mo薄膜作为背接触衬底将有利于形成高质量的CIGS晶体,达到较高的光电转换效率。     

Hydrodynamic Phonon Transport Perpendicular to Diffuse-Gray Boundaries

In this paper, we examine the application of an ideal phonon-hydrodynamic material as the heat transfer medium between two diffuse-gray boundaries with a finite temperature difference. We use the integral-equation approach to solve a modified phonon Boltzmann transport equation with the displaced Bose–Einstein distribution as the equilibrium distribution between two boundaries perpendicular to the heat transfer direction. When the distance between the boundaries is smaller than the phonon normal scattering mean free path, our solution converges to the ballistic limit as expected. In the other limit, we find that, although the local thermal conductivity in the bulk of the hydrodynamic material approaches infinity, the thermal boundary resistance at the interfaces becomes dominant. Our study provides insights into both the steady-state thermal characterization of phonon-hydrodynamic materials and the practical application of phonon-hydrodynamic materials for thermal management.     

First in situ determination of ground and borehole thermal properties in Latin America

The design of a ground heat exchanger for Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES) applications requires, among other parameters, knowledge of the thermal properties of the soil (thermal conductivity, borehole thermal resistance and undisturbed soil temperature). In situ determination of these properties can be done by installing a vertical borehole heat exchanger (BHE) and performing the so-called thermal response test (TRT). The present paper describes the results of a cooperative work between research groups of Chile and Argentina, which led to the first thermal response test performed in Latin America. A setup for implementing the TRT was prepared at the “Solar Energy Laboratory” of the Technical University Federico Santa Maria, Valparaiso, Chile. The test was realized over 9 days (24 June to 3 July 2003) while inlet and outlet fluid temperatures of the BHE and the ambient temperature were measured every minute. A comparison between conventional slope determination method, Geothermal Properties Measurement (GPM) data evaluation software based on numerical solutions to the differential equations governing the heat transfer processes and two variable-parameter fitting was performed in order to calculate the thermal conductivity and borehole thermal resistance. The detailed study of ground properties in different regions of Chile and Latin America (Argentina, Brazil) is a good precondition for future investigation and application of the Borehole Thermal Energy Storage (BTES) technology in the region.     

Thermal contact resistance at elastomer to metal interfaces

An experimental study examining thermal contact resistance and total resistance of metal (SS304)/silicone rubber/SS304 joint under light loads (0.02 to 0.25 MPa of apparent stress) for the different heat flux inputs (2.4 to 8.6 kW/m²) has been carried out. The bulk resistance of the 4.76 mm thick elastomer specimen accounted for between 65 to 70% of the total resistance, depending upon the applied conditions. A high thermal rectification was observed, that is, contact resistance at the hot interface was approximately 1.3 to 1.6 times higher than the contact resistance at the cold interface. The mean temperature at the interface and heat flux were found more influencing parameters than the apparent stress.     

Effective thermal conductivity and thermal contact resistance of gas diffusion layers in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Part 2: Hysteresis effect under cyclic compressive load

Heat transfer through the gas diffusion layer (GDL) is a key process in the design and operation of a PEM fuel cell. The analysis of this process requires the determination of the effective thermal conductivity as well as the thermal contact resistance between the GDL and adjacent surfaces/layers. The Part 1 companion paper describes an experimental procedure and a test bed devised to allow separation of the effective thermal conductivity and thermal contact resistance, and presents measurements under a range of static compressive loads. In practice, during operation of a fuel cell stack, the compressive load on the GDL changes.In the present study, experiments are performed on Toray carbon papers with 78% porosity and 5% PTFE under a cyclic compressive load. Results show a significant hysteresis in the loading and unloading cycle data for total thermal resistance, thermal contact resistance (TCR), effective thermal conductivity, thickness, and porosity. It is found that after 5 loading-unloading cycles, the geometrical, mechanical, and thermal parameters reach a “steady-state” condition and remain unchanged. A key finding of this study is that the TCR is the dominant component of the GDL total thermal resistance with a significant hysteresis resulting in up to a 34% difference between the loading and unloading cycle data. This work aims to clarify the impact of unsteady/cyclic compression on the thermal and structural properties of GDLs and provides new insights on the importance of TCR which is a critical interfacial transport phenomenon.     

ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT THERMAL BENDING MOMENTS AND STRESSES OF THE WORKPIECE DURING SURFACE GRINDING

Geometrical inaccuracy is often induced by heat generated during grinding. Furthermore, the transient thermal process is the main cause for the residual stresses on theground surface. The objective of this article is to investigate the three-dimensional transient temperature distribution of the workpiece using the finite difference method,and based on the acquired temperature and beam theory, the thermal moment and thermoelastic stress as calculated using Simpson's multiple numerical integral method. The energypartition is the key factor in accurately predicting the temperature distribution, on which the solution of the thermal moment and stress rely. As the heat conductivity of the workpiece decreases, the stress and moment increase near the wheel-workpiece contact zone and the peaks move closer to the contact position. A smaller thickness results in higher thermal stress and lower thermal moment. Enhancing cooling in grinding effectively reduces temperature and the induced stress.     

Determination of thermal contact resistance from transient temperature measurements

The temperature distribution in combustion engine components is highly influenced by thermal contact resistance. For the prediction and optimisation of the thermal behaviour of modern combustion engines knowledge about the contact heat transfer is crucial.Available correlations to predict the contact resistance are simplifications of the real geometric conditions and only tested for moderate pressures up to 7 MPa. Typical combustion engine applications include contact pressures up to 250 MPa.The experimental approach presented here to derive the thermal contact resistance in terms of contact heat transfer coefficients for high temperature and high pressure conditions is based on transient infrared temperature measurements. Two bodies initially at two different temperatures are brought in contact and the surface temperature histories are recorded with a high-speed infrared camera. The contact heat flux is calculated by solving the related inverse problem. From the contact heat flux and from the measured temperature jump at the interface the contact heat transfer coefficient is calculated.The inverse method used for the calculation of the heat flux is based on the analytical solution for a semi-infinite body and a step response to a Neumann boundary condition. This method provides an algorithm that is used in a sequential manner. The use of “future” temperature data greatly improve the stability of the governing equations and reduce the sensitivity to measurement errors.     

Temperature in the railway disc brake at a repetitive short-term mode of braking

The finite element (FE) model to determine the transient temperature field in the ventilated disc brake of the traction diesel multiple unit (DMU) has been proposed. The advantage of the developed numerical model is the representation of mutual motion of the stationary pad and the rotating disc, by a heat source of arbitrary shape moving over the stationary disc. Computations were carried out for the pad and the disc separately introducing the heat partition ratio. Both the single and the multiple modes of braking were examined. The calculated distributions in contact temperature were compared with the corresponding results obtained from analytical solutions of the boundary-value thermal problem of friction, and with experimental data determined by the method of thermocouples. It was demonstrated that the calculated mean temperature on the friction surfaces of the brake components and the bulk temperature of the disc during multiple brake application agree well with the corresponding results, obtained by methods mentioned above.     

Bulk and contact resistance in P3HT:PCBM heterojunction solar cells

In this paper, the series resistance of poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cells (OSC) has been studied. The series resistance of thermal annealed and un-annealed devices with different active layer thicknesses was measured. The series resistance of the organic solar cells consists of the bulk resistance of the active layer itself and the specific contact resistance between the active layer and the electrode. The bulk resistance and contact resistance were extracted from the measured series resistance using the vertical transmission line model (TLM) method. By fabricating solar cell devices with different active layer thicknesses, a relationship of the series resistance with thickness was established from which bulk and contact resistances were derived. We have also found that thermal annealing helps reduce both contact resistance and bulk resistance significantly; the contact resistance dropped by a factor of 2, while the bulk resistance decreased by a factor of 8. Results have shown that for an annealed P3HT:PCBM device that has an active layer thickness of 85 nm (optimum thickness for high efficiency), 17% of the total series resistance was due to the contact resistance, and bulk resistance contributed the rest 83%. The bulk resistance value for thermal annealed organic solar cell device with an active area of 0.1 cm² was found to be 150 Ω, and the measured specific contact resistance was 3.1 Ω cm². The measured bulk and contact resistance values are much higher as compared to the high efficiency silicon solar cells. Bulk resistance and contact resistance need to be further decreased in order to achieve higher organic solar cell efficiency.     

Temperature Prediction on Substrates and integrated Circuit Chips

This work deals with application of semianalytical methods for evaluation of temperature distribution on substrates and integrated circuit chips. This approach is based on a method proposed by Hein and Lenzi in 1969 which is a combination of Fourier transform. Green's function, and surface-element methods. The application of the method has evolved from a model that predicts the steady-state temperature on one-layer structures with lead connectors (modeled as lumped thermal resistances) and planar-discrete sources to a model that includes the effects of multiple layers and anisotropic thermal conductivity. Further generalization of the method to three new cases is presented. The first includes the transient thermal behavior in the one-layer structures with planar-discrete sources and anisotropic conductivity. The second deals with the steady-periodic behavior of two-layer structures with planar-discrete-periodic sources and anisotropic conductivity. The third case solves for the steady-state temperature in multilayer structures in which the conductivity of the bottom layer is larger than that of the upper layers (i.e., copper substrate); the thermal contact resistance between the bottom layer and its adjacent is also taken into account. Comparison between the finite-element (FE) method and this method is presented for one case.