Early identification of children at risk of unintentional injury: A sensation seeking scale for children 2-5 years of age

Objective

Sensation seeking is a personality attribute associated with injury in school-age children, adolescents, and adults. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of a questionnaire measure of sensation seeking for young children 2-5 years of age.

Methods

Items tapping aspects of sensation seeking (Novelty Seeking, Behavioral Intensity, Thrill Seeking) were developed, content validation was completed by child development experts, and 72 parents then completed the Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Children (SSSYC) twice (3 months intervening) to establish internal and test-retest reliabilities. To assess criterion validity, scores were related to children's preferences for high versus low sensation seeking activities, their free play behavior in an indoor playroom, and to children's history of unintentional injuries.

Results

Indices of internal reliability and test-retest reliability were good and questionnaire scores positively correlated with sensation seeking behaviors during free play, preferences for high versus low sensation seeking activities, and injury measures, providing support for criterion validity.

Conclusion

This initial evaluation of the SSSYC suggests that it is a psychometrically sound measure of sensation seeking. This scale may be useful for identifying high sensation seekers at young ages, providing the opportunity for early intervention to prevent unintentional injuries.     

Understanding children's injury-risk behavior: wearing safety gear can lead to increased risk taking

The present study examined whether school-age children show risk compensation and engage in greater risk taking when wearing safety gear compared to when not doing so when running an obstacle course containing hazards that could lead to physical injury. Because sensation seeking has been shown to influence risk taking, this child attribute was also assessed and related to risk compensation. Children 7-12 years of age were videotaped navigating the obstacle course twice, once wearing safety gear and once without safety gear, with reverse directions used to minimize possible practice effects. The time it took the child to run through the course and the number of reckless behaviors (e.g., falls, trips, bumping into things) that the child made while running the course were compared for the gear and no-gear conditions. Results indicated that children went more quickly and behaved more recklessly when wearing safety gear than when not wearing gear, providing evidence of risk compensation. Moreover, those high in sensation seeking showed greater risk compensation compared with other children. Implications for childhood injury prevention are discussed.     

Understanding risk compensation in children: Experience with the activity and level of sensation seeking play a role

The aims of this study were to determine if children 7–12 years show risk compensation when engaging in ecologically valid recreational sports tasks, and to explore how experience with the activity and extent of sensation seeking influence this. Children were positioned up on a platform, on a bike or wearing rollerblades, and they were presented varying heights and inclines from which they selected the greatest one they go down when wearing and not wearing safety gear appropriate to the activity; when making their ratings they anticipated actually doing the task. Results revealed that children engaged in significantly more risk taking when wearing safety gear, thereby demonstrating risk compensation, and this was significantly greater for the activity with which they had greater experience. However, children high in sensation seeking demonstrated significantly more risk compensation in both the high and low experience activities, although the injury risk appraisals that predicted risk compensation varied with experience level. Implications for the design of injury prevention programs and directions for future research are discussed.     

Self reported risk taking and risk compensation in skiers and snowboarders are associated with sensation seeking

In alpine skiing, a controversial discussion has been taking place regarding the potential influence of wearing a ski helmet on the individual level of risk taking behaviour. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether self reported risk taking behaviour and self reported risk compensation are associated with the personality trait sensation seeking (SS) in alpine skiing and snowboarding. In total, 683 persons (36% males and 64% females) completed an online-survey about attitudes and use of protective gear in winter sports including the German version of the sensation seeking scale form V. A logistic regression analysis including gender, age, nationality, preferred winter sport, self reported skiing ability, mean skiing time per season, use of ski helmets, and SS total score was used to estimated adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (95 CI) for self reported risk taking behaviour. Regression analysis revealed that a more risky behaviour increased with male gender (OR: 2.7), with an age < 25 years (OR: 1.6), with skiing (OR: 1.3), higher skill level (OR: 5.7), and a mean skiing time > 28 days per season (OR: 2.2). In addition, SS total score was significantly higher in more risky compared to more cautious people (23.8 vs. 20.3, p < .001). Ski helmet use was not found to be predictive for a more risky behaviour (p > .05). Also, skiers and snowboarders with self reported risk compensation while wearing a ski helmet had higher SS total scores compared to those who did not report risk compensation (23.8 vs. 20.9, p = .001). In addition, self reported risk compensation in helmet wearers increased with an age < 25 years (OR: 2.2), a higher skill level (OR: 2.5) and a mean skiing time > 28 days per season (OR: 2.1). In conclusion, self reported risk taking and self reported risk compensation are associated with higher sensation seeking total scores. The personality trait sensation seeking, not wearing of a ski helmet, appears to be associated with riskier behaviour on the ski slopes.     

Modeling the behavior of novice young drivers during the first year after licensure

Novice young drivers suffer from increased crash risk that translates into over-representation in road injuries. In order to effectively confront this problem, a better understanding of the driving behavior of novice young drivers and of its determinants is needed. This study analyzes the behavior of novice young drivers within a Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) program. Data on driving behavior of 62 novice drivers and their parents, who voluntarily participated in this experiment, were collected using in-vehicle data recorders that calculate compound risk indices as measures of the risk taking behavior of drivers. Data were used to estimate a negative binomial model to identify major determinants that affect the driving behavior of young drivers during the first year after licensure. Estimation results suggest that the risk taking behavior of young drivers is influenced by gender, sensation seeking tendency, driving behavior of their parents, amount of supervised driving and level of parental monitoring.     

Preventing vehicle crashes with trains at grade crossings: the risk seeker challenge

A formative evaluation for a communication campaign to decrease rail-automobile accidents was conducted with a survey of 891 randomly selected residents in Michigan, USA. The formative evaluation was theoretically grounded in the extended parallel process model. The results of the study suggest that the majority of respondents engage in safe driving behaviors around railways. However, 10-20% reported extremely risky behaviors such as trying to 'beat the train' (labeled 'risk seekers'). Further analyses revealed that the risk seekers were disproportionately male with strong sensation seeking tendencies to engage in new and novel experiences and to avoid boredom. The results suggest that high sensation seeking tendencies cause one to experience greater frustration and exhibit greater judgment distortions around rail crossings, which in turn, cause one to try and beat the train. Specific recommendations are given for campaign developers and limitations to the study are addressed.     

Increased patterns of risky behaviours among helmet wearers in skiing and snowboarding

Background

There has been an ongoing debate as to whether wearing helmets in skiing and snowboarding increases the risk tolerance of participants.

Objective

To investigate the roles of demographic and personality variables, and helmet usage in predicting risk taking behaviours in a cross-sectional sample of intermediate and proficient skiers and snowboarders.

Methods

Risk taking in skiing was measured using a validated 10-item self-report measure which was designated as the outcome variable in a three step hierarchical regression. Independent predictors included age, sex, education, sport, ability, helmet usage, and personality traits that have been associated with risk taking: impulsivity and sensation seeking.

Results

In the final regression model, helmet use significantly predicted variance in risk taking (standardized β = .10, p = .024), and the relationship remained after accounting for variance due to demographic variables and general trait measures. The partial relationship between risk taking and sex, ability, impulsivity, and sensation seeking were also significant (p < .05).

Conclusion

High sensation seeking, high impulsivity, male sex, and proficiency were associated with increased patterns of risky behaviours in skiers and snowboarders, and after accounting for these factors, helmet use was a significant predictor of risk taking. The relationship between helmet use and risk taking was modest suggesting that the costs of increased risk taking is not likely to outweigh the protective benefits of a helmet.     

Alcohol-impaired driving behavior and sensation-seeking disposition in a college population receiving routine care at campus health services centers

Accidents stemming from alcohol-impaired driving are the leading cause of injury and death among college students. Research has implicated certain driver personality characteristics in the majority of these motor vehicle crashes. Sensation seeking in particular has been linked to risky driving, alcohol consumption, and driving while intoxicated. This study investigated the effect of sensation seeking on self-reported alcohol-impaired driving behavior in a college student population while adjusting for demographics, residence and drinking locations. A total of 1587 college students over the age of 18 completed a health screening survey while presenting for routine, non-urgent care at campus heath services centers. Student demographics, living situation, most common drinking location, heavy episodic drinking, sensation-seeking disposition and alcohol-impaired driving behavior were assessed. Using a full-form logistic regression model to isolate sensation seeking after adjusting for covariates, sensation seeking remains a statistically significant independent predictor of alcohol-impaired driving behavior (OR = 1.52; CI = 1.19-1.94; p < 0.001). Older, white, sensation-seeking college students who engage in heavy episodic drinking, live off-campus, and go to bars are at highest risk for alcohol-impaired driving behaviors. Interventions should target sensation seekers and environmental factors that mediate the link between sensation seeking and alcohol-impaired driving behaviors.     

Comparability of item quality indices from sparse data matrices with random and non-random missing data patterns

This article summarizes a simulation study of the performance of five item quality indicators (the weighted and unweighted versions of the mean square and standardized mean square fit indices and the point-measure correlation) under conditions of relatively high and low amounts of missing data under both random and conditional patterns of missing data for testing contexts such as those encountered in operational administrations of a computerized adaptive certification or licensure examination. The results suggest that weighted fit indices, particularly the standardized mean square index, and the point-measure correlation provide the most consistent information between random and conditional missing data patterns and that these indices perform more comparably for items near the passing score than for items with extreme difficulty values.     

Measuring leader perceptions of school readiness for reforms: use of an iterative model combining classical and Rasch methods

This study examines validity of data generated by the School Readiness for Reforms: Leader Questionnaire (SRR-LQ) using an iterative procedure that combines classical and Rasch rating scale analysis. Following content-validation and pilot-testing, principal axis factor extraction and promax rotation of factors yielded a five factor structure consistent with the content-validated subscales of the original instrument. Factors were identified based on inspection of pattern and structure coefficients. The rotated factor pattern, inter-factor correlations, convergent validity coefficients, and Cronbach's alpha reliability estimates supported the hypothesized construct properties. To further examine unidimensionality and efficacy of the rating scale structures, item-level data from each factor-defined subscale were subjected to analysis with the Rasch rating scale model. Data-to-model fit statistics and separation reliability for items and persons met acceptable criteria. Rating scale results suggested consistency of expected and observed step difficulties in rating categories, and correspondence of step calibrations with increases in the underlying variables. The combined approach yielded more comprehensive diagnostic information on the quality of the five SRR-LQ subscales; further research is continuing.     

Relationships among boredom proneness,sensation seeking and smartphone addiction among Chinese college students: Mediating roles of pastime,flow experience and self-regulation

Smartphones are indispensable for many young people, which in turn increases the risk of smartphone addiction. Previous studies have discovered significant and positive influences of boredom proneness, sensation seeking and smartphone addiction. This study further explored these influences, their underlying mechanisms, and the mediating effects of pastime, flow experience and self-regulation on smartphone addiction. A total of 442 Chinese college students completed a survey focusing on boredom proneness, sensation seeking, pastime, flow experience, self-regulation and smartphone addiction. The results indicated that boredom proneness positively affects smartphone addiction. Contrary to expectations, the results showed that there is no significant relationship between sensation seeking and smartphone addiction. Moreover, pastime and self-regulation have partial mediation effects on the relationship between boredom proneness and smartphone addiction, while the effect of sensation seeking on smartphone addiction is completely transmitted with the help of flow experience and self-regulation. The findings and their implications are discussed.     

Excellent gamer, excellent driver? The impact of adolescents' video game playing on driving behavior: a two-wave panel study

This study explored the impact of adolescents’ playing of racing and drive’em up games on their risky driving behavior. Participants were 354 adolescent boys and girls who took part in a longitudinal panel survey on video game playing and risk taking attitudes, intentions and behaviors. In line with cultivation theory and theory of planned behavior the results showed that (even after controlling for aggression and sensation seeking) video game playing during adolescence succeeded in predicting later risky driving behavior through adolescents’ attitudes and intentions to exhibit this behavior in the future. The results suggest that this relationship may in part be explained by the game content.     

The characteristics of young pre-licensed drivers: Evidence from the New Zealand Drivers Study

Aim

The aim of this study was to identify demographic and behavioural factors associated with pre-licensed driving.

Method

A cohort comprising 3526 newly licensed drivers aged 15–24 years old from throughout New Zealand completed a questionnaire which sought information on pre-licensed driving behaviour and factors thought to be related to this.

Results

Almost half of the participants had driven on-road prior to passing their learner license theory test; 14% had driven more than 20 times; and 7.5% had driven more than 200 km. Multivariate logistic regression showed the results differed depending on the outcome examined. In general pre-licensed driving was significantly higher among males, among Māori, those living in a rural area, and those living in an area of high deprivation. Furthermore, those who drove pre-licensed were more likely to engage in other risky behaviours such as hazardous drinking and cannabis use, and have medium to high scores for sensation seeking and aggression/hostility.

Conclusion

The young people who were pre-licensed drivers displayed a range of demographic and behavioural characteristics that indicate they may be at higher crash risk than their peers who did not drive before licensing. Identifying those who drive before licensing and targeting road safety interventions towards this group may help reduce the high crash risk among novice drivers.     

Developing a self-reporting method to measure pedestrian behaviors at all ages

The objective of this study was to develop and validate a self-reporting scale to measure injury risk behaviors among pedestrians of all ages. The Pedestrian Behavior Scale (PBS) was developed that included 47 items enabling respondents to evaluate the frequency with which they had different types of pedestrian behaviors. The validation study was carried out on 343 participants (126 men and 217 women) between the ages of 15 and 78. Factor analyses were used to differentiate between 4 axes. Factor 1, “transgression”, included items concerning offence of legal rules and errors. Factor 2 included “lapses” items. Factor 3 comprised “aggressive behavior” items and factor 4 included “positive behavior” items. A revised version of the PBS with 20 items was produced by selecting those items that loaded most strongly on the four factors. The 20-item version had good internal reliability. The effects of demographic and mobility variables on the PBS scores were investigated. This instrument will be useful in measuring the frequency of these different types of behaviors among the pedestrians who are most at risk, analyzing the psychological factors used to predict PBS scores and thus better adapt preventive actions to the different populations of vulnerable road users of all ages.     

The Dula Dangerous Driving Index: an investigation of reliability and validity across cultures

The aim of this study is to further establish the validity and reliability of the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI). The reliability and validity of the instrument was investigated by comparing data from a US university sample, a US community sample, and a sample of Belgian traffic offenders. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported the presence of a four-factor structure with items for Drunk Driving forming a separate scale apart from items for Risky Driving, Negative Cognitive/Emotional Driving and Aggressive Driving. A multi-group confirmatory factor analysis with model constraints supported the validity of the DDDI. Inter-correlations revealed that the DDDI subscales are closely interrelated and uni-dimensionality of the measure was found in all three samples. This suggests the DDDI Total score can be used as a composite measure for dangerous driving. However, the validity of the subscales was demonstrated in the Belgian sample, as specific traffic offender groups (convicted for drunk driving, aggressive driving, speeding) scored higher on corresponding scales (Drunk Driving, Aggressive Driving, and Risky Driving, respectively), indicating that it is clinically meaningful to differentiate the subscales.     

Thrill and Adventure Seeking as a modifier of the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving among young drivers

Risky driving contributes to road trauma, a leading cause of mortality among young people. Health-relevant behaviour models suggest a negative relationship between risky driving and perceived risk of its outcomes. However, high sensation seekers may value the “thrill” of the risk, and positive associations between sensation seeking and risky driving have been observed. This is the first study to examine whether aspects of sensation seeking modify the relationship between perceived risk and risky driving. Young drivers in metropolitan Sydney and rural New South Wales [NSW] (n = 797) completed a survey relating to one of the four risky driving behaviours (speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and failing to wear a seatbelt). Results suggest that the Thrill and Adventure Seeking subscale of Zuckerman's (1994) Sensation Seeking Scale moderate the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving – indicating a negative relationship for low-scores, but not high-scorers, on the TAS subscale. Thus, road safety campaigns that emphasize the riskiness of a particular behaviour may be of limited benefit to thrill and adventure seekers.     

The road user behaviour of school students in Belgium

The present study aimed to investigate both the on road behaviour of Belgian school students and the validity of the Adolescent Road User Behaviour Questionnaire (ARBQ) in a sample of students attending school in Belgium. In total, 294 adolescents completed the ARBQ along with measures of their self-reported accident involvement and sensation seeking behaviour. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the original factor structure of: “unsafe road crossing”, “playing on the road” and “planned protective behaviour” for the 21-item version of the questionnaire, but not for the full scale. Males were found to engage more often in unsafe crossing behaviour and playing on the roads. There were also age differences, with unsafe road crossing increasing with age and engagement in planned protective behaviours improving with age. Those who reported being involved in an accident also reported more frequent engagement in unsafe crossing, playing on the roads, thrill seeking behaviour and lower levels of behaviour inhibition. Therefore, this study confirms that the ARBQ is a useful tool for investigating safety-related behaviours that contribute to accident involvement.     

The influence of anger,impulsivity, sensation seeking and driver attitudes on risky driving behaviour among post-graduate university students in Durban,South Africa

Introduction

Road traffic accidents (RTAs) constitute a serious global health risk, and evidence suggests that young drivers are significantly overrepresented among those injured or killed in RTAs. This study explores the role of anger, impulsivity, sensation seeking and driver attitudes as correlates for risky driving practices among drivers, drawing comparisons between age and gender.

Method

The study used a cross-sectional survey design, with a sample of 306 post-graduate university students from two universities in Durban, South Africa, who completed the self-administered questionnaire.

Results

The results indicate that drivers with higher driver anger, sensation seeking, urgency, and with a lack of premeditation and perseverance in daily activities were statistically more likely to report riskier driving acts. Males reported significantly more acts of risky driving behaviour (RDB) than females. Driver attitudes significantly predicted self-reported acts of RDB on most indicators. Older drivers (25 years and older) had safer driver attitudes and a lower sense of sensation seeking and urgency in life.

Conclusion

Interventions targeting young drivers, which focus on impeding the manifestation of anger, impulsivity and sensation seeking are recommended. Also, the empirical support for the attitude–behaviour hypothesis evidenced in this study vindicates the development or continuation of interventions that focus on this dynamic.     

Reducing the item number to obtain same-length self-assessment scales: a systematic approach using result of graphical loglinear Rasch modeling

The Revised Danish Learning Styles Inventory (R-D-LSI) (Nielsen 2005), which is an adaptation of Sternberg-Wagner Thinking Styles Inventory (Sternberg, 1997), comprises 14 subscales, each measuring a separate learning style. Of these 14 subscales, 9 are eight items long and 5 are seven items long. For self-assessment, self-scoring and self-interpretational purposes it is deemed prudent that subscales measuring comparable constructs are of the same item length. Consequently, in order to obtain a self-assessment version of the R-D-LSI with an equal number of items in each subscale, a systematic approach to item reduction based on results of graphical loglinear Rasch modeling (GLLRM) was designed. This approach was then used to reduce the number of items in the subscales of the R-D-LSI which had an item-length of more than seven items, thereby obtaining the Danish Self-Assessment Learning Styles Inventory (D-SA-LSI) comprising 14 subscales each with an item length of seven. The systematic approach to item reduction based on results of GLLRM will be presented and exemplified by its application to the R-D-LSI.     

Sensation seeking, risky driving and behavioral adaptation

A study on the relationship between sensation seeking (SS) and risky driving, aggressive driving and behavioral adaptation is reported on. College students completed a questionnaire concerning their driving behavior and level of sensation seeking. Results indicated that high SS's were significantly more likely than low SS's to speed, not wear belts, drink frequently, drive after drinking, perceive a low risk of detection for impaired driving, and perceive that they could drink more beer before being impaired. High SS's were also more likely to report aggressive driving habits. High SS's were significantly more likely than low SS's to say that they would drive faster on highways and on wet roads and drive after drinking, if operating a vehicle equipped with anti-lock brakes. The results are consistent with previous research.