Effect of increasing nitrobenzene loading rates on the performance of anaerobic migrating blanket reactor and sequential anaerobic migrating blanket reactor/completely stirred tank reactor system

A laboratory scale anaerobic migrating blanket reactor (AMBR) reactor was operated at nitrobenzene (NB) loading rates increasing from 3.33 to 66.67 g NB/m³ day and at a constant hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 6 days to observe the effects of increasing NB concentrations on chemical oxygen demand (COD), NB removal efficiencies, bicarbonate alkalinity, volatile fatty acid (VFA) accumulation and methane gas percentage. Moreover, the effect of an aerobic completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) reactor, following the anaerobic reactor, on treatment efficiencies was also investigated. Approximately 91–94% COD removal efficiencies were observed up to a NB loading rate of 30.00 g/m³ day in the AMBR reactor. The COD removal efficiencies decreased from 91% to 85% at a NB loading rate of 66.67 g/m³ day. NB removal efficiencies were approximately 100% at all NB loading rates. The maximum total gas, methane gas productions and methane percentage were found to be 4.1, 2.6 l/day and 59%, respectively, at a NB loading rate of 30.00 g/m³ day. The optimum pH values were found to be between 7.2 and 8.4 for maximum methanogenesis. The total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentrations in the effluent were 110 and 70 mg/l in the first and second compartments at NB loading rates as high as 66.67 and 6.67 g/m³ day, respectively, while they were measured as zero in the effluent of the AMBR reactor. In this study, from 180 mg/l NB 66 mg/l aniline was produced in the anaerobic reactor while aniline was completely removed and transformed to 2 mg/l of cathechol in the aerobic CSTR reactor. Overall COD removal efficiencies were found to be 95% and 99% for NB loading rates of 3.33 and 66.67 g/m³ day in the sequential anaerobic AMBR/aerobic CSTR reactor system, respectively. The toxicity tests performed with Photobacterium phosphoreum (LCK 480, LUMIStox) and Daphnia magna showed that the toxicity decreased with anaerobic/aerobic sequential reactor system from the influent, anaerobic and to aerobic effluents.     

Evaluation of 400 low background 10-in. photo-multiplier tubes for the Double Chooz experiment

The Double Chooz is a reactor neutrino experiment which measures the last unknown neutrino mixing angle θ₁₃. The Double Chooz experiment uses two identical detectors placed at sites far and near from Chooz reactor cores. The detector uses 390 low-background and high performance 10-in. Photo-Multiplier Tubes (PMTs) to detect scintillation light from gadolinium loaded liquid scintillator. In order to test and characterize the PMTs and to tune operation parameter, we developed two types of PMT test system and evaluated 400 PMTs before installation. Those PMTs fulfilled our requirements and half of them were installed in the far detector in 2009 and physics data have been successfully taken since 2011.     

Effect of temperature on the decomposition of trifluoromethane in a dielectric barrier discharge reactor

This study investigated the decomposition of trifluoromethane (HFC-23) by using nonthermal plasma (NTP) generated in a dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) reactor. The main problem of the NTP process may be its low decomposition efficiency for fluorinated carbons, which can be resolved by introducing a catalyst and operating the process at elevated temperatures. The effect of temperature on the HFC-23 decomposition was examined with alumina or glass beads as the packing material in the NTP reactor. With other conditions kept constant, higher temperature resulted in higher HFC-23 decomposition efficiency, and it was shown that the NTP reactor packed with alumina beads acting as a catalyst decomposed HFC-23 more effectively than that with glass beads. When the reactor temperatures were 300 °C and 250 °C (flow rate: 60 L h^− 1; HFC-23 concentration: 2000 ppm), the decomposition efficiency in the presence of the alumina catalyst approached 100% at input powers of 60 W and 100 W, respectively. The main products from HFC-23 were CO and CO₂, which nearly accounted for the amount of HFC-23 decomposed. With respect to the decomposition efficiency, the combination of the NTP and the catalyst was more advantageous than using them separately.     

Nitrate removal from groundwater by cooperating heterotrophic with autotrophic denitrification in a biofilm-electrode reactor

An intensified biofilm-electrode reactor (IBER) combining heterotrophic and autotrophic denitrification was developed for treatment of nitrate contaminated groundwater. The reactor was evaluated with synthetic groundwater (NO₃⁻-N50 mg L⁻¹) under different hydraulic retention times (HRTs), carbon to nitrogen ratios (C/N) and electric currents (I). The experimental results demonstrate that high nitrate and nitrite removal efficiency (100%) were achieved at C/N = 1, HRT = 8 h, and I = 10 mA. C/N ratios were reduced from 1 to 0.5 and the applied electric current was changed from 10 to 100 mA, showing that the optimum running condition was C/N = 0.75 and I = 40 mA, under which over 97% of NO₃⁻-N was removed and organic carbon (methanol) was completely consumed in treated water. Simultaneously, the denitrification mechanism in this system was analyzed through pH variation in effluent. The CO₂ produced from the anode acted as a good pH buffer, automatically controlling pH in the reaction zone. The intensified biofilm-electrode reactor developed in the study was effective for the treatment of groundwater polluted by nitrate.     

Cryogenic design and operation of liquid helium in an electron bubble chamber towards low energy solar neutrino detectors

We are developing a new cryogenic neutrino detector: electron bubble chamber, using liquid helium as the detecting medium, for the detection of low energy p-p reaction neutrinos (<420 keV), from the Sun. The program focuses in particular on the interactions of neutrinos scattering off atomic electrons in the detecting medium of liquid helium, resulting in recoil electrons which can be measured. We designed and constructed a small test chamber with 1.5 L active volume to start the detector R&D, and performed experimental proofs of the operation principle. The test chamber is a stainless steel cylinder equipped with five optical windows and ten high voltage cables. To shield the liquid helium chamber against the external heat loads, the chamber is made of double-walled jacket cooled by a pumped helium bath and is built into a LN₂/LHe cryostat, equipped with 80 K and 4 K radiation shields. A needle valve for vapor helium cooling was used to provide a 1.7-4.5 K low temperature environments. The cryogenic test chamber has been successfully operated to test the performance of Gas Electron Multipliers (GEMs) in He and He + H₂ at temperatures in the range of 3-293 K. This paper will give an introduction on the cryogenic solar neutrino detector using electron bubbles in liquid helium, then present the cryogenic design and operation of liquid helium in the small test chamber. The general principles of a full-scale electron bubble detector for the detection of low energy solar neutrinos are also proposed.     

Influence of electrode configuration on ozone synthesis and microdischarge property in dielectric barrier discharge reactor

Characteristics of a dielectric barrier discharge were investigated experimentally to clarify an influence of an electrode configuration on ozone synthesis and a microdischarge behavior. Three difference configurations: plane, trench and multipoint were employed as ground electrode. The alumina dielectric barrier coated plane electrode was used as a high-voltage electrode, to which a sinusoidal high-voltage was applied with 10 kHz frequency. Pure oxygen gas was fed into the reactor with gas flow rate of 5 L/min. The maximum yielding rate increased from 80 to 120 g/kWh by changing an electrode configuration from plane to multipoint, which has 528 number of a right-pyramid shape projection on a 6 cm × 22 cm plane electrode. The yielding rate was strongly dependent on a produced ozone concentration in the plane electrode case, whereas slightly depended on the concentration in the multipoint electrode case. The electrode configuration also affected a number of the microdischarges per one applied voltage cycle. The multipoint electrode showed the largest number of microdischarges at same input energy.     

Behaviour of neutral hydrogen atom density in the presence of a sample holder in a plasma reactor

The behaviour of density of neutral hydrogen atoms in the presence of a sample holder in a MESOX reactor was studied. The MESOX reactor is used for studying interaction of hydrogen atoms with solid state surfaces at extreme conditions. Concentrated solar radiation with power of approximately 6 kW is collimated to a spot with the surface in the order of magnitude 1 cm² thus allowing for independent sample heating above 2000 K. Hydrogen plasma is generated in a MW (microwave) discharge. The H-atom density is measured with a FOCP (Fibre Optics Catalytic Probe). The H-atom density in the empty reactor depends slightly on the pressure and MW power and is about 5 × 10²¹ m⁻³ at a power of 1000 W. The sample holder made from quartz glass was mounted in the centre of the reactor and the H-atom density was measured versus time. The H-atom density in the loaded reactor was decreasing continuously. After a time period in the order of 2 min, the H-atom density was reduced by approximately a factor of 3 in regards to the original value. The results were explained by taking into account a temperature dependence of the recombination coefficient for heterogeneous recombination of H atoms on the quartz surface.     

Study of wavelength-shifting chemicals for use in large-scale water Cherenkov detectors

Cherenkov detectors employ various methods to maximize light collection at the photomultiplier tubes (PMTs). These generally involve the use of highly reflective materials lining the interior of the detector, reflective materials around the PMTs, or wavelength-shifting sheets around the PMTs. Recently, the use of water-soluble wavelength-shifters has been explored to increase the measurable light yield of Cherenkov radiation in water. These wave-shifting chemicals are capable of absorbing light in the ultraviolet and re-emitting the light in a range detectable by PMTs. Using a 250 L water Cherenkov detector, we have characterized the increase in light yield from three compounds in water: 4-Methylumbelliferone, Carbostyril-124, and Amino-G Salt. We report the gain in PMT response at a concentration of 1 ppm as 1.88±0.02 for 4-Methylumbelliferone, stable within 0.5% over 50 days, 1.37±0.03 for Carbostyril-124, and 1.20±0.02 for Amino-G Salt. The response of 4-Methylumbelliferone was modeled, resulting in a simulated gain within 9% of the experimental gain at 1 ppm concentration. Finally, we report an increase in neutron detection performance of a large-scale (3.5 kL) gadolinium-doped water Cherenkov detector at a 4-Methylumbelliferone concentration of 1 ppm.     

Effect of bio-sludge concentration on the efficiency of sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system to treat wastewater containing Pband Ni

The removal efficiency of sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system with synthetic industrial estate wastewater (SIEWW) containing Ni²⁺ or Pb²⁺ was increased with the increase of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). But, the sludge volume index (SVI) of the system was increased up to higher than 100 mL/g under MLSS of up to 4000 mg/L. Also, the effluent NO₃⁻ was decreased with the increase of MLSS. The heavy metals (Ni²⁺ or Pb²⁺), BOD₅, COD and TKN removal efficiencies of SBR system with SIEWW containing 5 mg/L heavy metal (Ni²⁺ or Pb²⁺) under MLSS of 3000 mg/L were 83–85%, 96–97%, 95–96% and 83–94%, respectively. The increase of heavy metal (Ni²⁺ or Pb²⁺) concentrations of SIEWW from 5 to 50 mg/L were not significantly effected to both COD and BOD₅ removal efficiencies (they were reduced by only 4–5%), but they were strongly effected to both TKN and heavy metals removal efficiencies (they were reduced by 15 and 20–30%, respectively). Both Ni²⁺ and Pb²⁺ could repress the growth of both nitrification and denitrification bacteria. And Ni²⁺ was more effective than Pb²⁺ to reduce the heavy metals removal efficiency. The SBR system could be applied to treat the industrial estate wastewater (IEWW) containing both Pb²⁺ and Ni²⁺ even the heavy metals concentrations was up to 5 mg/L, but the removal efficiency was quite low and excess bio-sludge did not produce. However, the system efficiency could be increased with the increase of BOD₅ concentration of the wastewater. The Pb²⁺, Ni²⁺, COD, BOD₅ and TKN removal efficiencies of the system with IEWW containing 500 mg/L BOD₅, 5 mg/L Ni²⁺ and 5 mg/L Pb²⁺ under HRT of 3 days were 85.68 ± 0.31%, 87.03 ± 0.21%, 86.0 ± 0.5%, 94.04 ± 0.4% and 90.5 ± 0.9%, respectively. And the effluent SRT, SS and SVI of the system were 44.7 ± 0.6 days, 150 ± 6 mg/L and 100 mL/g, respectively.     

Small pixel CZT detector for hard X-ray spectroscopy

A new small pixel cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detector has been developed for hard X-ray spectroscopy. The X-ray performance of four detectors is presented and the detectors are analysed in terms of the energy resolution of each pixel. The detectors were made from CZT crystals grown by the travelling heater method (THM) bonded to a 20×20 application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and data acquisition (DAQ) system. The detectors had an array of 20×20 pixels on a 250 μm pitch, with each pixel gold-stud bonded to an energy resolving circuit in the ASIC. The DAQ system digitised the ASIC output with 14 bit resolution, performing offset corrections and data storage to disc in real time at up to 40,000 frames per second. The detector geometry and ASIC design was optimised for X-ray spectroscopy up to 150 keV and made use of the small pixel effect to preferentially measure the electron signal. A ²⁴¹Am source was used to measure the spectroscopic performance and uniformity of the detectors. The average energy resolution (FWHM at 59.54 keV) of each pixel ranged from 1.09±0.46 to 1.50±0.57 keV across the four detectors. The detectors showed good spectral performance and uniform response over almost all pixels in the 20×20 array. A large area 80×80 pixel detector will be built that will utilise the scalable design of the ASIC and the large areas of monolithic spectroscopic grade THM grown CZT that are now available. The large area detector will have the same performance as that demonstrated here.     

Observations on dual-ended readout of 100 mm long LYSO crystals

We are investigating using dual-ended readout of axially oriented long thin scintillator crystals in detectors for a compact geometry, small ring diameter animal PET system. The axial position of interaction is determined from the light sharing between two photodetectors at opposite ends of the crystal. We examine the light output, energy resolution and axial spatial resolution of 1.5-5×2×100 mm³ polished LYSO crystals by irradiating with an electronically collimated beam of 511 keV photons oriented perpendicular to the long axis and read out at either end by position sensitive photomultiplier tubes (PSPMTs). Three reflector materials, namely Teflon, 3 M enhanced specular reflector (ESR) and black paint are examined for the 2×2×100 mm³ crystal size. The light output increases and energy resolution improves with the crystal cross-section. Generally, the spatial resolution worsens with increase in crystal cross-section. For the 2×2×100 mm³ crystal size, the mean energy resolutions of the photopeak over the nine irradiation positions were 14.4±0.4%, 16.0±1.2% and 28.3±2.1% with mean spatial resolutions of 7.0±1.0, 9.4±3.3 and 26.0±5.0 mm using ESR, Teflon and black paint, respectively. ESR reflector gave the best light output, energy and axial spatial resolutions. These characterization results of PSPMT-based dual-ended long LYSO crystals will be useful in the design of detector modules for a highly compact geometry preclinical PET system using this detector technology.     

Investigation of a sewage-integrated technology combining an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) and an electrochemical reactor in a pilot-scale plant

A sewage-integrated treatment system (SITS) for the treatment of municipal wastewater, consisting of an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) reactor to remove soluble organic matter and an electrochemical (EC) reactor to oxidize the NH₃-N, was evaluated. The performance of the EGSB reactor was monitored for 12 months in a pilot-scale plant. Iron shavings were added to the EGSB reactor on the sixtieth day to improve the removal efficiency of the chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids (SS) and total phosphorus (TP). After the iron shavings were added, the effluent COD, SS and TP decreased from 104 to 46 mg L⁻¹, 21 to 8.6 mg L⁻¹ and 3.62 to 1.36 mg L⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, in the EC reactor, which was equipped with IrO₂/Ti anodes, the NH₃-N and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations decreased from 25 to 12 mg L⁻¹ and 29 to 15 mg L⁻¹, respectively. The NH₃-N was directly oxidized to N₂, resulting in no secondary pollution. The results demonstrated the possibility of removing carbon and nutrients in a SITS with high efficiency. The system runs efficiently and with a flexible operation, making it suitable for low-strength wastewater. The results and parameters presented here can provide references for the practical project.     

Growth and in-situ electrical characterization of ultrathin epitaxial TiN films on MgO

We examine the properties of ultrathin TiN films grown by reactive dc magnetron sputtering on single-crystalline MgO(100) substrates at growth temperatures ranging from 30 to 650 °C. The resistance of the films is measured in-situ, during growth, to study the thickness at which the films coalesce and become structurally continuous. Both the in-situ resistance measurements and X-ray diffraction measurements show a clear transition from polycrystalline growth to epitaxial (100) growth well below typical TiN growth temperatures, or between 100 and 200 °C. The coalescence and continuity thicknesses are 1.09 ± 0.06 nm and 5.5 ± 0.5 nm, respectively, at room temperature but reach a minimum of 0.08 ± 0.02 nm and 0.7 ± 0.1 nm, respectively, at 600 °C. A large drop in resistivity is seen with increasing growth temperature and the resistivity reaches 16.6 μΩ cm at 600 °C. Achieving epitaxy at such a low temperature and a low continuity thickness is important in a variety of applications such as device interconnects and metal-oxide-semiconductor devices.     

Development of a neutron tomography system using a low flux reactor

A neutron tomography instrument was designed and developed at the Royal Military College (RMC) of Canada with Queen's University to enhance these institutions' non-destructive evaluation capabilities. The neutron imaging system was built around a Safe Low-Power C(K)ritical Experiment (SLOWPOKE-2) nuclear research reactor. The low power and physical geometry of the reactor required that a novel design be developed to facilitate tomography. A unique rotisserie style rotary stage and clamping apparatus was developed. Furthermore, the low flux at the image plane (3×10⁴ n cm⁻² s⁻¹), necessitated that the image acquisition and reconstruction processes be optimized. Tomographs of numerous samples were obtained using the new tomography instrument at RMC.     

Hydrogen atom density in a solar plasma reactor

A density of neutral hydrogen atoms was systematically measured in the MESOX solar plasma reactor at different MW powers and flow rates. The H-atom density was measured by a gold fibre optics catalytic probe. The H-atom density was in general increasing with increasing MW power. At a pressure of 40 Pa and a power of 500 W it was about 3.5 × 10²¹ m⁻³ and at a power of 1000 W it was about 4.1 × 10²¹ m⁻³. A degree of dissociation of hydrogen molecules was between 3% and 20% depending on pressure and power. A maximum degree of dissociation was obtained at a pressure of 40 Pa and 1000 W, while the lowest one at 130 Pa and 500 W.     

Performance evaluation of a continuous bipolar electrocoagulation/electrooxidation-electroflotation (ECEO-EF) reactor designed for simultaneous removal of ammonia and phosphate from wastewater effluent

The present study aimed to evaluate the performance of a continuous bipolar ECEO-EF reactor designed for simultaneous removal of ammonia and phosphate from wastewater effluent. The reactor was comprised of two distinct units: electrochemical and separation. In the electrochemical unit, Al, stainless steel, and RuO₂/Ti plates were used. All the measurements were performed according to the standard methods. Maximum efficiency of the reactor for phosphate removal was 99% at pH of 6, current density of 3 A, detention time of 60 min, and influent phosphate concentration of 50 mg/l. The corresponding value for ammonia removal was 99% at a pH of 7 under the same operational conditions as for phosphate removal. For both phosphate and ammonia, the removal efficiency was highest at neutral pH, with higher current densities, and with lower influent concentrations. In addition to removal of phosphate and ammonia, application of the Al³⁺ plates enabled the removal of nitrite and nitrate, which may be present in wastewater effluent and are also products of the electrochemical process. The reactor was also able to decrease the concentrations of phosphate, ammonia, and COD under actual wastewater conditions by 98%, 98%, and 72%, respectively. According to the results of the present study, the reactor can be used for efficient removal of ammonia and phosphate from wastewater.     

Growth of 3C-SiC on 150-mm Si(100) substrates by alternating supply epitaxy at 1000 °C

To lower deposition temperature and reduce thermal mismatch induced stress, heteroepitaxial growth of single-crystalline 3C-SiC on 150 mm Si wafers was investigated at 1000 °C using alternating supply epitaxy. The growth was performed in a hot-wall low-pressure chemical vapor deposition reactor, with silane and acetylene being employed as precursors. To avoid contamination of Si substrate, the reactor was filled in with oxygen to grow silicon dioxide, and then this thin oxide layer was etched away by silane, followed by a carbonization step performed at 750 °C before the temperature was ramped up to 1000 °C to start the growth of SiC. Microstructure analyses demonstrated that single-crystalline 3C-SiC is epitaxially grown on Si substrate and the film quality is improved as thickness increases. The growth rate varied from 0.44 to 0.76 ± 0.02 nm/cycle by adjusting the supply volume of SiH₄ and C₂H₂. The thickness nonuniformity across wafer was controlled with ± 1%. For a prime grade 150 mm virgin Si(100) wafer, the bow increased from 2.1 to 3.1 μm after 960 nm SiC film was deposited. The SiC films are naturally n type conductivity as characterized by the hot-probe technique.     

Radiological hazards of TENORM in precipitated calcium carbonate generated as waste at nitrophosphate fertilizer plant in Pakistan

The NORM (naturally occurring radioactive material) in phosphate rock is transferred as TENORM (technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material) to phosphatic fertilizers and to the waste generated by the chemical processes. The waste generated at the NP (nitrophosphate) fertilizer plant at Multan in Pakistan is PCC (precipitated calcium carbonate). Thirty samples of the PCC were collected from the heaps of the waste near the fertilizer plant. Activity concentrations of radionuclides in the waste samples were measured by using the technique of gamma ray spectrometry consisting of coaxial type HPGe (high purity germanium) detector coupled with a PC (personal computer) based MCA (multichannel analyzer) through a spectroscopy amplifier. Activity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K in the waste samples were determined to be 273 ± 23 (173-398), 32 ± 4 (26-39) and 56 ± 5 (46-66) Bq kg⁻¹ respectively. The activity concentration of ²²⁶Ra in the PCC waste was found to be higher than that in naturally occurring calcium carbonate (limestone and marble) and in worldwide soil. Radiological hazard was estimated from indoor and outdoor exposure to gamma rays from the PCC. Indoor annual effective dose was higher than 1 m Sv. Potential radiological pollution in the environment from TENORM in the PCC has also been addressed.     

Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using surfactin: A biosurfactant as stabilizing agent

Surfactin, a lipopeptide biosurfactant, was used to stabilize the formation of silver nanoparticles. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using a borohydrate reduction was performed at three pH levels (pH 5, 7 and 9) and two different temperatures in the presence of surfactin. The nanomaterials were characterized by UV-vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The nanoparticles were synthesized at different pH conditions and temperature and remained stable for 2 months. The UV-vis spectra showed a surface plasmon resonance vibration band at 428 nm for all samples. TEM micrographs revealed that the mean nanoparticle size decreased with increase of pH from 5 to 9 (i.e. 17.8 ± 9.8, 6.9 ± 1.5 and 4.3 ± 1.1 nm) at 4 °C. However, at room temperature, size increased with pH (4.9 ± 1.4, 6.5 ± 1.6, 9.7 ± 4.3 nm at pH 5, 7 and 9 respectively). This report describes the use of a renewable, environmentally compatible, biodegradable surfactant as a stabilizing agent for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.     

Detection of SNM by delayed gamma rays from induced fission

The Pulsed Neutron Interrogation Test Assembly (PUNITA) is an experimental device for research in NDA methods and field applicable instrumentation for nuclear safeguards and security applications. PUNITA incorporates a standard 14-MeV (D-T) pulsed neutron generator inside a large graphite mantle. The generator target is surrounded by a thick tungsten filter with the purpose to increase the neutron output and to tailor the neutron energy spectrum. In this configuration a sample may be exposed to a relatively high average thermal neutron flux of about (2.2±0.1)×10³ s⁻¹ cm⁻² at only 10% of the maximum target neutron emission. The sample cavity is large enough to allow variation of the experimental setup including the fissile sample, neutron and gamma detectors, and shielding materials.The response from SNM samples of different fissile material content was investigated with various field-applicable scintillation gamma detectors such as the 3×2 in. LaBr₃ detector. Shielding in the form of tungsten and cadmium was applied to the detector to improve the signal to background ratio. Gamma and neutron shields surrounding the samples were also tested for the purpose of simulating clandestine conduct. The energy spectra of delayed gamma rays were recorded in the range 100 keV-9 MeV. In addition time spectra of delayed gamma rays in the range 3.3-8 MeV were recorded in the time period of 10 ms-120 s after the 14-MeV neutron burst. The goal of the experiment was to optimize the sample/detector configuration including the energy range and time period for SNM detection. The results show, for example, that a 170 g sample of depleted uranium can be detected with the given setup in less than 3 min of investigation. Samples of higher enrichment or higher mass are detected in much shorter time.