Customization in educational computer games and its effect on learning: Experimental study with primary school children

The instructional effects of customization features in child learning games have rarely been examined. This value-added study addresses the existing gap with regards to user-initiated cosmetic customization of environment elements (i.e., non-avatar customization). Participants (N = 143; M_age = 9.41) studied a biological topic for about 20 min: either using the experimental version of a learning game with customization features, or from a control version without them. Null results were found as concerns between-group differences: both for motivation-related variables and learning outcome measures. These findings indicate that user-initiated cosmetic customization features can be omitted by game designers, especially in settings where children are assigned specific instructional materials from which to study.     

Instructional effectiveness of a computer-supported program for teaching reading comprehension strategies

This article examines the effectiveness of a computer-based instructional program (e-PELS) aimed at direct instruction in a collection of reading comprehension strategies. In e-PELS, students learn to highlight and outline expository passages based on various types of text structures (such as comparison or cause-and-effect) as well as to paraphrase, self-question, and summarize. The study involved 1041 fourth-grade elementary students from 21 schools distributed in three regions in central Chile. Participant teachers integrated this program into the Spanish language curriculum, instructing their students during thirty sessions of 90 min each during one school semester. Pretest-to-posttest gains in reading comprehension scores were significantly greater for students instructed with this program than for students who received traditional instruction (d = .5), with particularly strong effects for lower-achieving students (d = .7). The findings support the efficacy of direct instruction in specific learning strategies in a computer-based environment.     

Avatar creation in virtual worlds: Behaviors and motivations

Avatar creation has become common for people to participate and interact in virtual worlds. Using an online survey (N = 244), we investigated both the behavioral characteristics and major motivations for avatar creation in virtual worlds. Our results suggest that a majority of the participants had multiple avatars; these avatars’ appearance did not merely resemble the human players; and their personality did not necessarily mirror the player’s real personality. Furthermore, participants on average spent over 20 h per week and often interacting with others in the virtual worlds. Our exploratory factor analysis yielded four major motivations: virtual exploration, social navigation, contextual adaptation, and identity representation.     

Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement,flow and immersion in game-based learning

In this paper, we investigate the impact of flow (operationalized as heightened challenge and skill), engagement, and immersion on learning in game-based learning environments. The data was gathered through a survey from players (N = 173) of two learning games (Quantum Spectre: N = 134 and Spumone: N = 40). The results show that engagement in the game has a clear positive effect on learning, however, we did not find a significant effect between immersion in the game and learning. Challenge of the game had a positive effect on learning both directly and via the increased engagement. Being skilled in the game did not affect learning directly but by increasing engagement in the game. Both the challenge of the game and being skilled in the game had a positive effect on both being engaged and immersed in the game. The challenge in the game was an especially strong predictor of learning outcomes. For the design of educational games, the results suggest that the challenge of the game should be able to keep up with the learners growing abilities and learning in order to endorse continued learning in game-based learning environments.     

The synergetic effect of learning styles on the interaction between virtual environments and the enhancement of spatial thinking

Students have difficulty learning 3D geometry; spatial thinking is an important aspect of the learning processes in this academic area. In light of the unique features of virtual environments and the influence of metacognitive processes (e.g., self-regulating questions) on the teaching of mathematics, we assumed that a combination of self-regulating questions and virtual environments would enhance spatial thinking through the exercise of certain spatial abilities with the VR Spaces 1.0 software. These two methods primarily focus on the cognitive domain. In terms of learning styles, we define different cognitive characteristics. The main objective of the present study was to examine whether students with a certain learning style would benefit more from this exercise than other students. To assess the effect of these methods, a sample of 192 10th graders were randomly assigned to four groups, two of which used Virtual Spaces 1.0 (Group 1 with virtual reality and self-regulating questions, N = 52; Group 2 with virtual reality only, N = 52) while the other two used non-Virtual Spaces 1.0 (Group 3 with self-regulating questions only, N = 45; Group 4 was the non-treatment group; N = 45). The findings indicate a differential impact of virtual environments on students with different modal and personal learning styles.     

The learner characteristics,features of desktop 3D virtual reality environments,and college chemistry instruction: A structural equation modeling analysis

We examined a model of the impact of a 3D desktop virtual reality environment on the learner characteristics (i.e. perceptual and psychological variables) that can enhance chemistry-related learning achievements in an introductory college chemistry class. The relationships between the 3D virtual reality features and the chemistry learning test as it relates to the selected perceptual (spatial orientation and usability) and psychological (self-efficacy and presence) variables were analyzed using the structural equation modeling approach. The results supported all the hypothesized relationships except one. Usability strongly mediated the relationship between 3D virtual reality features, spatial orientation, self-efficacy, and presence. Spatial orientation and self-efficacy had statistically significant, positive impact on the chemistry learning test. The results indicate that 3D virtual reality-based instruction is effective for enhancing students’ chemistry achievement. Overall, this study contributed a research model that can help increase the effectiveness of desktop virtual reality environments for enhancing spatial ability and science achievement. Moreover, this study provides insight to science educators, instructional designers, and multimedia developers who are interested in designing science-based instruction using instructional design principles.     

Task difficulty of virtual reality-based assessment tools compared to classical paper-and-pencil or computerized measures: A meta-analytic approach

Virtual reality-based assessment tools arise as a promising alternative for classic neuropsychological assessment with an increased level of ecological validity. Because virtual reality cognitive measures recreate tasks that resemble with the demands from the real world it is assumed that they require additional cognitive resources and are more difficult than classical paper-and-pencil or computerized measures. Although research has focused on comparing the performance obtained on virtual reality-based measures with classical paper-and-pencil or computerized measures, no meta-analysis has been conducted on this topic. Thirteen studies met our inclusion criteria: assessed any cognitive process using virtual reality and analogous classical or computerized assessment tools of the same process. Based on a random effects model, the results indicated a moderate effect size in favor of classical and computerized tests (g = −0.77) revealing an increased task difficulty in virtual reality. Overall, results from the current meta-analysis point out that cognitive performance obtained in virtual reality is poorer than the one in classical or computerized assessment which might suggest that tasks embedded in virtual reality have an increased level of complexity and difficulty and require additional cognitive resources.     

Virtual world teaching,experiential learning,and assessment: An interdisciplinary communication course in Second Life

While many reports espouse the potential impact that 3-D virtual worlds are expected to have on teaching and learning in higher education in a few years, there are few empirical studies that inform instructional design and learning assessment in virtual worlds. This study explores the nature and process of learning in Second Life in a graduate interdisciplinary communication course in fall 2007. Literature suggests that 3-D virtual worlds can be well suited for experiential learning environments. In this study, the actual instructional effectiveness of Second Life as an experiential learning environment for interdisciplinary communication is empirically examined using mixed research methods of journal content analysis, surveys, focus group, and virtual world snapshots and video.     

Level of interactivity and executive functions as predictors of learning in computer-based chemistry simulations

High school students’ learning outcomes was examined comparing exploratory vs. worked simulations. The effects of added icons and students’ executive functions were also examined. In Study 1, urban high school students (N = 84) were randomly assigned to one of four versions of a web-based simulation of kinetic molecular theory that varied in instructional format (exploratory vs. worked simulation) and representation (added icons vs. no added icons). Learning was assessed at two levels: comprehension and transfer. For transfer, a main effect was found for instructional format: the exploratory condition yielded greater levels of transfer than the worked simulation. Study 2 used the same conditions and a more complex simulation, the ideal gas law, with a similar sample of students (N = 67). For transfer, an interaction between instructional format and executive functions was found: Whereas students with higher levels of executive functions had better transfer with the exploratory condition, students with lower levels of executive functions had better transfer with the guided simulations. Results are discussed in relation to current theories of instructional design and learning.     

Effects of constructing versus playing an educational game on student motivation and deep learning strategy use

In this study the effects of two different interactive learning tasks, in which simple games were included were described with respect to student motivation and deep strategy use. The research involved 235 students from four elementary schools in The Netherlands. One group of students (N = 128) constructed their own memory ‘drag and drop’ game, whereas the other group (N = 107) played an existing ‘drag and drop’ memory game. Analyses of covariance demonstrated a significant difference between the two conditions both on intrinsic motivation and deep strategy use. The large effect sizes for both motivation and deep strategy use were in favour of the construction condition. The results suggest that constructing a game might be a better way to enhance student motivation and deep learning than playing an existing game. Despite the promising results, the low level of complexity of the games used is a study limitation.     

Flow,social interaction anxiety and salivary cortisol responses in serious games: A quasi-experimental study

Serious games are supposed to instigate engagement and, in turn, improve learning. High engagement is frequently connected with a positive affective state and a high flow state. However, the alleged link between a learner’s affective state, his/her flow state and learning outcomes has not been investigated in detail in the context of serious games. Even less information is available on how serious games may influence markers of physiological arousal. To fill this gap, participants of this exploratory study (N = 171) played one of the six different serious game-based treatments, while we measured their affect, flow, cortisol secretion and learning achievement. The treatments were supposed to generate different levels of engagement and cortisol responses, because some of them were designed for a single user, while others were team-based, featuring so-called social-evaluative threat (ST) components. Our results revealed that flow was positively related to positive affect and negatively to negative affect. While flow and positive affect were related to learning gains, almost no relationship between either of these three variables and cortisol levels was found. Negative affect and cortisol were elevated in social interaction anxious males in team-based conditions. This study contributes to the limited body of research on the relationship between engagement and learning in serious games. We provide new perspectives on the relationships between flow, positive/negative affect and cortisol. Our findings highlight the fact that team-based serious games with ST components may have adverse effects on learners, particularly males, with high social interaction anxiety.     

Efficient learning using a virtual learning environment in a university class

This study examines a blended learning setting in an undergraduate course in psychology. A virtual learning environment (VLE) complemented the face-to-face lecture. The usage was voluntary and the VLE was designed to support the learning process of the students. Data from users (N = 80) and non-users (N = 82) from two cohorts were collected. Control variables such as demographical data, attitude towards the learning subject, computer literacy, motivation, learning effort and available infrastructure were captured by means of a self-report. As a learning outcome, the grade in the final exam was included. For the VLE-users, the mean performance in the VLE was taken as a predictor for success in the final exam. Two different groups of VLE-users were observed and classified into ’light and ’heavy’ users. The results showed that among those students who had spent two or more hours per week for pre- and post processing of the lectures, ‘heavy’ VLE-users performed better than non-users in the final exam. Additionally, the ‘heavy’ users’ performance in the VLE was the best predictor for the grade in the final exam. We discuss the results in the context of self-regulated learning competence.     

Moved to learn: The effects of interactivity in a Kinect-based literacy game for beginning readers

Reading to young children has a number of benefits, including supporting the acquisition of vocabulary and literacy skills. Digital reading games, including ones with new modes of interface such as the Kinect for Xbox, may provide similar benefits in part by allowing dynamic in-game activities. However, these activities may also be distracting and detract from learning. Children (ages 5–7 years, N = 39) were randomly assigned to either i) jointly read a story with an adult, ii) have the story read by a character in a Kinect game, or iii) have the story read by a character in a Kinect game plus in-game activities. Both Kinect-Activities and Book Reading groups had significant gains for High Frequency Words, Active Decoding, and Total Reading Score, but only Kinect-Activities group had significant gain for Sight words (p < .05). Overall, these findings are encouraging for the next generation of digital literacy games.     

Learning with quizzes,simulations, and adventures: Students' attitudes,perceptions and intentions to learn with different types of serious games

Students' attitudes, their perceptions of cognitive and affective quality as predictors of attitudes, and the resulting intention toward learning with serious games remains ambiguous, largely due to the use of imprecise measures. The presented studies have aimed to develop and test a measurement of students' attitudes, perceptions, and intentions to learn with serious games in general, and to use the instrument to examine differences for the most common types of serious games, that is quiz, simulation, and adventure. To this end, a pretest (n = 301) and two main studies (Study 1: n = 135, Study 2: n = 375) were conducted. The developed instrument shows high reliability and convergent validity. Results demonstrate positive attitudes, positive cognitive perceptions, and high positive and low negative affective perceptions of students toward learning with serious games in general, as well as with different game types. Findings from a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), however, indicate differences between the three game types that could be related to the perceptions of cognitive and affective quality. Predominately, compared to quizzes and adventures, simulations were perceived as more supportive for the comprehension and application of knowledge while promoting a less positive affect. Additionally, there was a significant difference due to gender. Whereas females reported higher perceptions of negative affective quality compared to males when serious games were addressed in general, answers to questions about the specific game types revealed a more detailed picture. In contrast to previous findings in existing literature, female students reported a more positive attitude, as well as higher perceptions of positive affective quality, than males for all three game types. These results stress the importance of examining the types of serious games separately and considering gender when evaluating students' attitudes and perceptions when learning with serious games.     

Computer agents versus avatars: Responses to interactive game characters controlled by a computer or other player

Computer and videogames often require that users interact with other characters on the screen that represent other real people or characters that are controlled by computer code running within the game. The difference between game play with other avatars (player-controlled characters) or agents (characters controlled by the computer) may influence the engagement a game player experiences. This study investigated the effects of agency (avatar versus agent) and the type of gaming activity (competition versus cooperation) on physiological arousal and subjective evaluation of play. A 2 (avatar, agent)×2 (competition, cooperation) within-subject experiment was conducted (N=32). Players exhibited greater physiological arousal to otherwise identical interactions when other characters were introduced as an avatar rather than an agent. Furthermore, the co-player's source of agency interacted with the type of gaming activity. The results have implications for understanding how different forms of representation in virtual worlds and games will affect psychological responses in the contexts of entertainment, learning and the conduct of serious work.     

Technology practices: Confirmatory factor analysis and exploration of teachers' technology integration in subject areas

It is thought that gains in student learning from the use of digital technologies are more likely to be related to teachers' practice than the technology itself. In secondary schooling, a key aspect of this is concerned with understanding how digital technologies are used to support teaching and learning in specific subject areas. Subject areas have their own conventions and expectations for learning that will influence teachers' technology use and technology-supported student tasks. The aim of this paper is to present confirmatory factor analysis of a scale considering common technology-related tasks in three subject areas. Data included in the current analysis are teacher questionnaires collected in 2010 (N = 3624), as part of a large-scale one-to-one laptop initiative in Australia. Results from the 2010 data confirm a five-factor structure revealing significant differences in teachers' professional and instructional uses of digital technologies among three core subject areas: English, Mathematics and Science. Trends are confirmed through a second teacher data set collected in 2011 for Wave 2 of the same one-on-one laptop initiative. Implications of these findings in relation to understanding and supporting effective technology integration and areas of future research are discussed.     

Earth science learning in SMALLab: A design experiment for mixed reality

Conversational technologies such as email, chat rooms, and blogs have made the transition from novel communication technologies to powerful tools for learning. Currently virtual worlds are undergoing the same transition. We argue that the next wave of innovation is at the level of the computer interface, and that mixed-reality environments offer important advantages over prior technologies. Thus, mixed reality is positioned to have a broad impact on the future of K-12 collaborative learning. We propose three design imperatives that arise from our ongoing work in this area grounded in research from the learning sciences and human-computer interaction. By way of example, we present one such platform, the Situated Multimedia Arts Learning Lab [SMALLab]. SMALLab is a mixed-reality environment that affords face-to-face interaction by colocated participants within a mediated space. We present a recent design experiment that involved the development of a new SMALLab learning scenario and a collaborative student participation framework for a 3-day intervention for 72 high school earth science students. We analyzed student and teacher exchanges from classroom sessions both during the intervention and during regular classroom instruction and found significant increases in the number of student-driven exchanges within SMALLab. We also found that students made significant achievement gains. We conclude that mixed reality can have a positive impact on collaborative learning and that it is poised for broad dissemination into mainstream K-12 contexts.     

Development of a Moodle course for schoolchildren’s table tennis learning based on Competence Motivation Theory: Its effectiveness in comparison to traditional training method

Based on Competence Motivation Theory (CMT), a Moodle course for schoolchildren’s table tennis learning was developed (The URL is http://www.bssepp.com, and this course allows guest access). The effects of the course on students’ knowledge, perceived competence and interest were evaluated through quantitative methods. The sample of the study consisted of 32 primary school students, who were randomly assigned to two groups, one of which used the Moodle course (Group M, N = 16) and the other one (Group C, N = 16) didn’t, and the intervention lasted 6 weeks. The result showed that (1) students made significant learning gains and demonstrated statistically significant higher perceived competence by participating in the Moodle course, (2) there was no statistically significant mean difference in table tennis interest between the two intervention groups. These positive effects on knowledge and perceived competence suggest that Moodle can be used as a tool to supplement traditional motor learning.     

The embodiment of sexualized virtual selves: The Proteus effect and experiences of self-objectification via avatars

Research has indicated that many video games and virtual worlds are populated by unrealistic, hypersexualized representations of women, but the effects of embodying these representations remains understudied. The Proteus effect proposed by Yee and Bailenson (2007) suggests that embodiment may lead to shifts in self-perception both online and offline based on the avatar’s features or behaviors. A 2 × 2 experiment, the first of its kind, examined how self-perception and attitudes changed after women (N = 86) entered a fully immersive virtual environment and embodied sexualized or nonsexualized avatars which featured either the participant’s face or the face of an unknown other. Findings supported the Proteus effect. Participants who wore sexualized avatars internalized the avatar’s appearance and self-objectified, reporting more body-related thoughts than those wearing nonsexualized avatars. Participants who saw their own faces, particularly on sexualized avatars, expressed more rape myth acceptance than those in other conditions. Implications for both online and offline consequences of using sexualized avatars are discussed.     

Is Web-based instruction popular in psychology? A national survey

To date, there has been sparse research on the extent of use of online (Web-based) instructional approaches in academic Psychology. This survey reports the findings of a national survey (N = 207) of Chairs of Psychology departments on the didactic use of online instruction. Although the respondents expressed positive views regarding Web-based pedagogy, the actual implementation by psychology faculty of online instruction was reported by Chairs as being somewhat negligible. Previous studies have found that that the major drawback to the use of online teaching is the lack of formal training in computer technology on the part of psychology instructors (e.g., Vodanovich, S. J., & Piotrowski, C. (2001). Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28, 253–255). The implications of embracing Web-based didactic approaches for the field are discussed.