Locally Minimizing Embedding and Globally Maximizing Variance: Unsupervised Linear Difference Projection for Dimensionality Reduction

Recently, many dimensionality reduction algorithms, including local methods and global methods, have been presented. The representative local linear methods are locally linear embedding (LLE) and linear preserving projections (LPP), which seek to find an embedding space that preserves local information to explore the intrinsic characteristics of high dimensional data. However, both of them still fail to nicely deal with the sparsely sampled or noise contaminated datasets, where the local neighborhood structure is critically distorted. On the contrary, principal component analysis (PCA), the most frequently used global method, preserves the total variance by maximizing the trace of feature variance matrix. But PCA cannot preserve local information due to pursuing maximal variance. In order to integrate the locality and globality together and avoid the drawback in LLE and PCA, in this paper, inspired by the dimensionality reduction methods of LLE and PCA, we propose a new dimensionality reduction method for face recognition, namely, unsupervised linear difference projection (ULDP). This approach can be regarded as the integration of a local approach (LLE) and a global approach (PCA), so that it has better performance and robustness in applications. Experimental results on the ORL, YALE and AR face databases show the effectiveness of the proposed method on face recognition.     

Cross‐Collection Map Inference by Intrinsic Alignment of Shape Spaces

Inferring maps between shapes is a long standing problem in geometry processing. The less similar the shapes are, the harder it is to compute a map, or even define criteria to evaluate it. In many cases, shapes appear as part of a collection, e.g. an animation or a series of faces or poses of the same character, where the shapes are similar enough, such that maps within the collection are easy to obtain. Our main observation is that given two collections of shapes whose “shape space” structure is similar, it is possible to find a correspondence between the collections, and then compute a cross‐collection map. The cross‐map is given as a functional correspondence, and thus it is more appropriate in cases where a bijective point‐to‐point map is not well defined. Our core idea is to treat each collection as a point‐sampling from a low‐dimensional shape‐space manifold, and use dimensionality reduction techniques to find a low‐dimensional Euclidean embedding of this sampling. To measure distances on the shape‐space manifold, we use the recently introduced shape differences, which lead to a similar low‐dimensional structure of the shape spaces, even if the shapes themselves are quite different. This allows us to use standard affine registration for point‐clouds to align the shape‐spaces, and then find a functional cross‐map using a linear solve. We demonstrate the results of our algorithm on various shape collections and discuss its properties.     

Hierarchical Stochastic Neighbor Embedding

In recent years, dimensionality‐reduction techniques have been developed and are widely used for hypothesis generation in Exploratory Data Analysis. However, these techniques are confronted with overcoming the trade‐off between computation time and the quality of the provided dimensionality reduction. In this work, we address this limitation, by introducing Hierarchical Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (Hierarchical‐SNE). Using a hierarchical representation of the data, we incorporate the well‐known mantra of Overview‐First, Details‐On‐Demand in non‐linear dimensionality reduction. First, the analysis shows an embedding, that reveals only the dominant structures in the data (Overview). Then, by selecting structures that are visible in the overview, the user can filter the data and drill down in the hierarchy. While the user descends into the hierarchy, detailed visualizations of the high‐dimensional structures will lead to new insights. In this paper, we explain how Hierarchical‐SNE scales to the analysis of big datasets. In addition, we show its application potential in the visualization of Deep‐Learning architectures and the analysis of hyperspectral images.     

Robust locally linear embedding

In the past few years, some nonlinear dimensionality reduction (NLDR) or nonlinear manifold learning methods have aroused a great deal of interest in the machine learning community. These methods are promising in that they can automatically discover the low-dimensional nonlinear manifold in a high-dimensional data space and then embed the data points into a low-dimensional embedding space, using tractable linear algebraic techniques that are easy to implement and are not prone to local minima. Despite their appealing properties, these NLDR methods are not robust against outliers in the data, yet so far very little has been done to address the robustness problem. In this paper, we address this problem in the context of an NLDR method called locally linear embedding (LLE). Based on robust estimation techniques, we propose an approach to make LLE more robust. We refer to this approach as robust locally linear embedding (RLLE). We also present several specific methods for realizing this general RLLE approach. Experimental results on both synthetic and real-world data show that RLLE is very robust against outliers.     

Polycube Shape Space

There are many methods proposed for generating polycube polyhedrons, but it lacks the study about the possibility of generating polycube polyhedrons. In this paper, we prove a theorem for characterizing the necessary condition for the skeleton graph of a polycube polyhedron, by which Steinitz's theorem for convex polyhedra and Eppstein's theorem for simple orthogonal polyhedra are generalized to polycube polyhedra of any genus and with non‐simply connected faces. Based on our theorem, we present a faster linear algorithm to determine the dimensions of the polycube shape space for a valid graph, for all its possible polycube polyhedrons. We also propose a quadratic optimization method to generate embedding polycube polyhedrons with interactive assistance. Finally, we provide a graph‐based framework for polycube mesh generation, quadrangulation, and all‐hex meshing to demonstrate the utility and applicability of our approach.     

Dimensionality reduction-based spoken emotion recognition

To improve effectively the performance on spoken emotion recognition, it is needed to perform nonlinear dimensionality reduction for speech data lying on a nonlinear manifold embedded in a high-dimensional acoustic space. In this paper, a new supervised manifold learning algorithm for nonlinear dimensionality reduction, called modified supervised locally linear embedding algorithm (MSLLE) is proposed for spoken emotion recognition. MSLLE aims at enlarging the interclass distance while shrinking the intraclass distance in an effort to promote the discriminating power and generalization ability of low-dimensional embedded data representations. To compare the performance of MSLLE, not only three unsupervised dimensionality reduction methods, i.e., principal component analysis (PCA), locally linear embedding (LLE) and isometric mapping (Isomap), but also five supervised dimensionality reduction methods, i.e., linear discriminant analysis (LDA), supervised locally linear embedding (SLLE), local Fisher discriminant analysis (LFDA), neighborhood component analysis (NCA) and maximally collapsing metric learning (MCML), are used to perform dimensionality reduction on spoken emotion recognition tasks. Experimental results on two emotional speech databases, i.e. the spontaneous Chinese database and the acted Berlin database, confirm the validity and promising performance of the proposed method.     

基于最近邻的随机非线性降维

针对线性降维技术应用于具有非线性结构的数据时无法得到令人满意的结果的问题,提出一种新的着重于保持高维空间局部最近邻信息的非线性随机降维算法(NNSE)。该算法首先在高维空间中通过计算样本点之间的欧氏距离找出每个样本点的最近邻点,接着在低维空间中产生一个随机的初始分布;然后通过将低维空间中的样本点不断向其最近邻点的平均位置移动,直到产生稳定的低维嵌入结果。与一种先进的非线性随机降维算法——t分布随机邻域嵌入(t-SNE)相比,NNSE算法得到的低维结果在可视化方面与t-SNE算法相差不大,但通过比较两者的量化指标可以发现,NNSE算法在保持最近邻信息方面上明显优于t-SNE算法。     

Partial Shape Matching Using Transformation Parameter Similarity

In this paper, we present a method for non‐rigid, partial shape matching in vector graphics. Given a user‐specified query region in a 2D shape, similar regions are found, even if they are non‐linearly distorted. Furthermore, a non‐linear mapping is established between the query regions and these matches, which allows the automatic transfer of editing operations such as texturing. This is achieved by a two‐step approach. First, pointwise correspondences between the query region and the whole shape are established. The transformation parameters of these correspondences are registered in an appropriate transformation space. For transformations between similar regions, these parameters form surfaces in transformation space, which are extracted in the second step of our method. The extracted regions may be related to the query region by a non‐rigid transform, enabling non‐rigid shape matching.     

面向高光谱分类的局部几何稀疏保持嵌入EI北大核心CSCD

大量维数约简(Dimensionality reducion, DR)方法表明保持数据间稀疏特性的同时,确保几何结构的保持能更有效提取出具有鉴别性的特征,为此本文提出一种联合局部几何近邻结构和局部稀疏流形的维数约简方法.该方法首先通过局部线性嵌入方法重构每个样本以保持数据的局部线性关系,同时计算样本邻域内的局部稀疏流形结构,在此基础上通过图嵌入框架保持数据的局部几何近邻结构和稀疏结构,最后在低维嵌入空间中使类内数据尽可能聚集,提取低维鉴别特征,从而提升地物分类性能.在Indian Pines和PaviaU高光谱数据集上的实验结果表明,本文方法相较于传统维数约简方法能明显提高地物的分类性能,总体分类可达到83.02%和91.20%,有利于实际应用.     

中心近邻嵌入学习算法的人脸识别研究

针对人脸识别问题,提出了一种中心近邻嵌入的学习算法,其与经典的局部线性嵌入和保局映射不同,它是一种有监督的线性降维方法。该方法首先通过计算各类样本中心,并引入中心近邻距离代替两样本点之间的直接距离作为权系数函数的输入;然后再保持中心近邻的几何结构不变的情况下把高维数据嵌入到低维坐标系中。通过中心近邻嵌入学习算法与其他3种人脸识别方法(即主成分分析、线形判别分析及保局映射)在ORL、Yale及UMIST人脸库上进行的比较实验结果表明,它在高维数据低维可视化和人脸识别效果等方面均较其他3种方法取得了更好的效果。     

Maximal local interclass embedding with application to face recognition

Dimensionality reduction of high dimensional data is involved in many problems in information processing. A new dimensionality reduction approach called maximal local interclass embedding (MLIE) is developed in this paper. MLIE can be viewed as a linear approach of a multimanifolds-based learning framework, in which the information of neighborhood is integrated with the local interclass relationships. In MLIE, the local interclass graph and the intrinsic graph are constructed to find a set of projections that maximize the local interclass scatter and the local intraclass compactness simultaneously. This characteristic makes MLIE more powerful than marginal Fisher analysis (MFA). MLIE maintains all the advantages of MFA. Moreover, the computational complexity of MLIE is less than that of MFA. The proposed algorithm is applied to face recognition. Experiments have been performed on the Yale, AR and ORL face image databases. The experimental results show that owing to the locally discriminating property, MLIE consistently outperforms up-to-date MFA, Smooth MFA, neighborhood preserving embedding and locality preserving projection in face recognition.     

SEMISUPERVISED MULTIMODAL DIMENSIONALITY REDUCTION

The problem of learning from both labeled and unlabeled data is considered. In this paper, we present a novel semisupervised multimodal dimensionality reduction (SSMDR) algorithm for feature reduction and extraction. SSMDR can preserve the local and multimodal structures of labeled and unlabeled samples. As a result, data pairs in the close vicinity of the original space are projected in the nearby of the embedding space. Due to overfitting, supervised dimensionality reduction methods tend to perform inefficiently when only few labeled samples are available. In such cases, unlabeled samples play a significant role in boosting the learning performance. The proposed discriminant technique has an analytical form of the embedding transformations that can be effectively obtained by applying the eigen decomposition, or finding two close optimal sets of transforming basis vectors. By employing the standard kernel trick, SSMDR can be extended to the nonlinear dimensionality reduction scenarios. We verify the feasibility and effectiveness of SSMDR through conducting extensive simulations including data visualization and classification on the synthetic and real‐world datasets. Our obtained results reveal that SSMDR offers significant advantages over some widely used techniques. Compared with other methods, the proposed SSMDR exhibits superior performance on multimodal cases.     

Divergence‐Free Shape Correspondence by Deformation

We present a novel approach for solving the correspondence problem between a given pair of input shapes with non‐rigid, nearly isometric pose difference. Our method alternates between calculating a deformation field and a sparse correspondence. The deformation field is constructed with a low rank Fourier basis which allows for a compact representation. Furthermore, we restrict the deformation fields to be divergence‐free which makes our morphings volume preserving. This can be used to extract a correspondence between the inputs by deforming one of them along the deformation field using a second order Runge‐Kutta method and resulting in an alignment of the inputs. The advantages of using our basis are that there is no need to discretize the embedding space and the deformation is volume preserving. The optimization of the deformation field is done efficiently using only a subsampling of the orginal shapes but the correspondence can be extracted for any mesh resolution with close to linear increase in runtime. We show 3D correspondence results on several known data sets and examples of natural intermediate shape sequences that appear as a by‐product of our method.     

邻域参数动态变化的局部线性嵌入

局部线性嵌入是最有竞争力的非线性降维方法,有较强的表达能力和计算优势.但它们都采用全局一致的邻城大小,只适用于均匀分布的流形,无法处理现实中大量存在的非均匀分布流形.为此,提出一种邻域大小动态确定的新局部线性嵌入方法.它采用Hessian局部线性嵌入的概念框架,但用每个点的局部邻域估计此邻域内任意点之间的近似测地距离,然后根据近似测地距离与欧氏距离之间的关系动态确定该点的邻域大小,并以此邻域大小构造新的局部邻域.算法几何意义清晰,在观察数据稀疏和数据带噪音等情况下,都比现有算法有更强的鲁棒性.标准数据集上的实验结果验证了所提方法的有效性.     

Supervised local spline embedding for medical diagnosis

A common difficulty of intelligent medical diagnosis is the high dimensionality of medical data. Manifold learning provides an elegant way to solve this problem by mapping the high-dimensional data into the low-dimensional embedding. However, traditional manifold learning algorithms fail to fully utilize the supervised information in medical diagnosis. To overcome this problem, in this paper we propose a novel Supervised Local Spline Embedding (SLSE) algorithm, which incorporates the supervised information into the local spline manifold embedding. SLSE not only preserves the local neighborhood structure, but also utilizes the global manifold shape through spline interpolation. Moreover, SLSE leverages the supervised information by maximizing the inter-class scatterness and minimizing the intra-class scatterness in the low-dimensional embedding. The promising experimental results on real-world medical datasets illustrate the superiority of our proposed approach in comparison with the existing popular manifold learning algorithms.

     

A comparative study of nonlinear manifold learning methods for cancer microarray data classification

The paper presents an empirical comparison of the most prominent nonlinear manifold learning techniques for dimensionality reduction in the context of high-dimensional microarray data classification. In particular, we assessed the performance of six methods: isometric feature mapping, locally linear embedding, Laplacian eigenmaps, Hessian eigenmaps, local tangent space alignment and maximum variance unfolding. Unlike previous studies on the subject, the experimental framework adopted in this work properly extends to dimensionality reduction the supervised learning paradigm, by regarding the test set as an out-of-sample set of new points which are excluded from the manifold learning process. This in order to avoid a possible overestimate of the classification accuracy which may yield misleading comparative results. The different empirical approach requires the use of a fast and effective out-of-sample embedding method for mapping new high-dimensional data points into an existing reduced space. To this aim we propose to apply multi-output kernel ridge regression, an extension of linear ridge regression based on kernel functions which has been recently presented as a powerful method for out-of-sample projection when combined with a variant of isometric feature mapping. Computational experiments on a wide collection of cancer microarray data sets show that classifiers based on Isomap, LLE and LE were consistently more accurate than those relying on HE, LTSA and MVU. In particular, under different experimental conditions LLE-based classifier emerged as the most effective method whereas Isomap algorithm turned out to be the second best alternative for dimensionality reduction.     

A unified framework for semi-supervised dimensionality reduction

In practice, many applications require a dimensionality reduction method to deal with the partially labeled problem. In this paper, we propose a semi-supervised dimensionality reduction framework, which can efficiently handle the unlabeled data. Under the framework, several classical methods, such as principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), maximum margin criterion (MMC), locality preserving projections (LPP) and their corresponding kernel versions can be seen as special cases. For high-dimensional data, we can give a low-dimensional embedding result for both discriminating multi-class sub-manifolds and preserving local manifold structure. Experiments show that our algorithms can significantly improve the accuracy rates of the corresponding supervised and unsupervised approaches.     

基于随机游走扩散映射的降维算法

传统数据降维算法分为线性或流形学习降维算法,但在实际应用中很难确定需要哪一类算法.设计一种综合的数据降维算法,以保证它的线性降维效果下限为主成分分析方法且在流形学习降维方面能揭示流形的数据结构.通过对高维数据构造马尔可夫转移矩阵,使越相似的节点转移概率越大,从而发现高维数据降维到低维流形的映射关系.实验结果表明,在人造...     

融合LLE和ISOMAP的非线性降维方法

局部线性嵌入（LLE）和等距映射（ISOMAP）在降维过程中都只单一地保留数据集的某一种特性结构, 从而使降维后的数据集往往存在顾此失彼的情况。针对这种情况, 借助流形学习的核框架, 提出融合LLE和ISOMAP的非线性降维方法。新的融合方法使降维后的数据集既保持着数据点间的局部邻域关系, 也保持着数据点间的全局距离关系。在仿真数据集和实际数据集上的实验结果证实了该方法的优越性。     

自适应局部线性嵌入算法

局部线性嵌入算法（LLE）因其较低的计算复杂度和高效性适用于很多降维问题,新的自适应局部线性嵌入（ALLE）算法对数据进行非线性降维,提取高维数据的本质特征,并保持了数据的全局几何结构特征,对比实验结果表明了该算法对于非理想数据的降维结果均优于LLE算法。