Co-gasification characteristics of palm oil by-products and coals for syngas production

Large amounts of empty fruit bunches (EFB) are generated annually during the palm oil manufacturing process; however, they are still treated as waste. In this study, gasification experiments were conducted using EFB in a fluidized bed reactor (throughput=1 kg/hr) at an experimental temperature range of 700 to 1,000 oC to assess the use of EFB as a renewable energy resource. To overcome the issues of an unstable EFB supply, co-gasification experiments using EFB with coal were conducted. The resulting syngas yield was approximately 70 vol%, similar to that from EFB gasification. The heating value of syngas was a magnitude of three-times higher than that of EFB gasification. However, the dry gas yield and cold gas efficiency were lower than those of EFB gasification. A coal mixing rate of 20 wt% and 0.6 of ER would be appropriate conditions for continuous production of stable syngas.     

Catalytic Gasification of Empty Palm Fruit Bunches Using Charcoal and Bismuth Oxide for Syngas Production

Topics in Catalysis - The purpose of this research is to evaluate the intent of empty fruit bunches of palm oil (EFBpalm oil) to catalytic gasification of wood produced charcoal (Woodcharcoal) in...     

Treatment of empty fruit bunches for recovery of residual oil and additional steam production

The fiber and shells in fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are important as fuel in a standard palm oil milling process, with the empty bunches being incinerated or mulched for fertilizer application to oil palms. However, dewatering the empty bunches in an additional pressing station can substantially enhance the available energy. Recovery of residual oil which results from the pressing of the empty bunches is an attractive economic proposition in itself, especially with the change in the composition of the fresh fruit bunches as a result of the introduction of the weevil. The resultant fibrous material serves as valuable fuel for steam generation which can be profitably used for further downstream processing, especially where a refinery is located near a palm oil mill.     

Experimental characterization and modeling of microwave heating of oil palm kernels,mesocarps, and empty fruit bunches

The current work investigates the microwave heating and drying behavior of oil palm fresh fruits and bunches. Dielectric, thermal, and mechanical properties of oil palm kernels (OPKs), mesocarps, and empty fruit bunches (EFBs) were determined. New empirical models of the dielectric constant, loss factor, elastic modulus, and yield stress as functions of moisture content were obtained for OPKs, mesocarps, and EFBs. The thermal conductivity of the mesocarps and EFBs was 0.458 and 0.0285?W/(m K), respectively. Thermal analyses showed that decomposition of OPKs, mesocarps, and EFBs started when the temperature exceeded 100°C. Multiphysics models that consider electromagnetic waves, moisture, and heat conservation as well as material deformation were developed for OPKs, mesocarps, and EFBs. The simulation results show that an EFB sample with high moisture content generated a high moisture gradient during heating, causing high stress that exceeded its yield stress. However, this effect occurred only during the initial heating. Our results show that microwave heating can aid the detachment of oil palm fruit from bunches before EFBs harden because of moisture loss.     

Improving supercritical water gasification of sludge by oil palm empty fruit bunch addition: Promotion of syngas production and heavy metal stabilization

The co-gasification of sewage sludge and palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB) in supercritical water (SCW) was conducted at 400℃ with a pressure of over 25 MPa. This study aimed to investigate the influence of EFB addition on the syngas production and its composition. The heavy metal distribution and the leaching potential of the solid residue were also assessed. The results showed that syngas yield significantly increased with the addition of EFB into the feedstock. The cold gas efficiency (CGE) and carbon efficiency (CE) of co-gasification were higher than those of individual gasification. The actual syngas production from co-gasification of sludge and EFB was 45% higher than the theoretical total volume. The results indicated that the addition of EFB to sludge had the synergetic promotion effect on syngas production from sludge and EFB in supercritical water. This enhancement might be due to the dissolution of alkali metals from EFB and the adjustment of organic ratio. In addition, higher percentage of heavy metals were deposited and stabilized in the solid residue after SCWG. The leaching concentration of heavy metals from the solid residues was decreased to a level below the standard limit which enables it to be safely disposed of in landfill. In conclusion, the EFB addition has been proved to promote syngas production, as well as, stabilize the heavy metal in solid residues during co-SCWG.     

Co-processing of heavy oil with wood biomass using supercritical <Emphasis Type="Italic">m</Emphasis>-xylene and <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>-dodecane solvents

Heavy oil was co-processed with wood biomass by using supercritical m-xylene and n-dodecane. The effects of the solvent, temperature, hydrogen, and catalyst on vacuum residue (VR) upgrading were evaluated using residue conversion, coke formation, and product distribution as performance parameters. VR was subjected to co-processing with microcrystalline cellulose (cellulose) or oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber (EFB), and the parameters were compared with those obtained from VR upgrading. Co-processing of VR/cellulose using a catalyst and hydrogen led to higher conversion (72.6 wt%) than co-processing of VR/EFB at 400 °C and the highest yield of light product (65.7 wt%). Using the Fe₃O₄ catalyst with H₂ for co-processing positively influenced generation of the light product fraction. VR upgrading and co-processing using supercritical solvents could eliminate a certain amount of sulfur compounds from heavy oil. Co-processing of wood biomass with petroleum feedstocks in existing oil refineries can reduce the capital costs of bulk treatment.     

滇池底泥-褐煤超临界水共气化制氢实验研究

采用间歇式超临界水反应装置,以滇池疏浚底泥和褐煤为原料,分别将褐煤、底泥单独进行超临界水气化,对比不同反应原料对气化制氢的影响。再将二者按不同混合比例（1∶9、2∶8、 3∶7、4∶6、5∶5）进行共气化,对比不同混合比例对气化制氢的影响。结果表明,相对褐煤,底泥气化具有气体组分富氢、气相收率高、产气量小的特点;褐煤气化则具有碳气化率高、产气量大的特点。褐煤单独气化的气相收率低于底泥,共气化时气相收率达到834 mL/g。褐煤和底泥在超临界水共气化过程中碳气化率和产氢率存在明显协同效应。与加权平均值相比,碳气化率和H2产率分别提高了3.12%和55 mL/g。共气化存在最优比例,超过3∶7后,碳气化率逐渐下降。以最优比例进行共气化,既可达到处置底泥的目的,又可保持相对较高的H2产率（350 mL/g）和CH4产率（113 mL/g）。     

Production of palm oil from fruit

Palm oil is obtained from the fruit flesh ofElaeas guineensis. Whole bunches of ripe fruit are harvested and brought to the oil mill. Processing involves sterilization, mechanical removal of fruit from the bunch, and mechanical breakdown of the fruit structure followed by expression of the oil in a screw press. Oil mixed with water and fruit debris is purified in settling tanks and centrifuges, dried and stored. Oil yield represents 22% of the fresh fruit bunch and kernels a further 5%. The solid wastes are the empty fruit bunch, the press fiber and the nut shells. Empty bunches are incinerated, while fiber and shell are used to fire the mill boilers. The liquid effluents are mixed and usually treated by anaerobic/aerobic fermentation until fit for discharge. Various treatment systems are described. Quality control in the oil mill concentrates on (a) minimizing deterioration of the oil by hydrolysis and by oxidation, and (b) optimizing oil yield by frequent measurements of oil losses.     

Swelling properties of chemically modified oil palm empty fruit bunch based polyurethane composites

In this study, the diffusion of various types of solvent in oil palm empty fruit bunch/polyurethane composites, produced from chemically modified empty fruit bunches, was investigated. The solubility parameters and polymer–solvent interaction parameters of the produced composites were determined. The void contents of the composites were also determined before swelling tests to eliminate the free solvent present in the system. From the results obtained, we found that the diffusion of the solvents was dependent on the compatible group available and the voids present in the system. The solubility parameters of the empty fruit bunch/polyurethane composites with different degrees of chemical modification were 11.6 and 11.7 (cal/cm^?3)^1/2. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

The factors affecting the performance of activated carbon prepared from oil palm empty fruit bunches for adsorption of phenol

Powdered activated carbons (PACs) were produced from oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) by varying the operating parameters of temperatures, CO₂ gas flow rates and activation times using 2-level full factorial experimental design. The EFB samples were first carbonized for 30 min using nitrogen gas followed by physical activation using CO₂ to optimize best production conditions. The optimum conditions for PACs produced were investigated through adsorption tests on aqueous solution of phenol. The results of this study demonstrated that the activation temperature with the range of 800–900 °C had the most significant effect on the adsorption characteristics as well as the yield of the activated carbon produced. Based on the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and model equation developed, the optimum production conditions for the EFB PAC were found to be at the activation temperature of 900 °C with CO₂ gas flow rate of 0.1 L/min and activation time of 15 min. Characterization of PAC produced showed that the activation conditions would find good-quality adsorbent with the BTE surface area of 345.1 m²/g and well forming pores distribution.     

Pyro-catalytic deoxgenated bio-oil from palm oil empty fruit bunch and fronds with boric oxide in a fixed-bed reactor

The catalytic effect of boric oxide on the pyrolysis of empty palm oil fruit bunch (EFB) and oil palm fronds (OPF) in a fixed-bed reactor at 400 °C was investigated. Boric oxide was found to selectively reduce 50-80% of the hydroxyl and methoxy groups in both water soluble (WS) and non water soluble (NWS) fractions of the oil. The increase in water and char yield suggested that pyro-catalysis of boric oxide enhanced the cleavage of C-O bonds in the biomass polymers and the capability to retain the inherent oxygen of the biomass in the solid product. This allows organic compounds with less oxygen substitution to become volatile and condenses as bio-oil. A mechanism for pyrolysis of boric oxide with biomass showing the hydroxyl removal pathway is proposed in this study.     

Characterization and Properties of Treated Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Regenerated Cellulose Biocomposite Films with Butyl Methacrylate Using Ionic Liquid

Regenerated cellulose biocomposite films from oil palm empty fruit bunch and microcrystalline cellulose were prepared using N,N-dimethylacetamide and lithium chloride. The effects of oil palm empty fruit bunch contents and butyl methacrylate on properties of regenerated cellulose biocomposite films were investigated. At 2?wt% of untreated oil palm empty fruit bunch content showed highest crystallinity index, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and thermal stability but lower elongation at break than other oil palm empty fruit bunch content. The treated regenerated cellulose biocomposite films with butyl methacrylate showed better tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, thermal stability, and crystallinity index while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study showed interaction between cellulose and butyl methacrylate.     

Process modeling for parametric study on oil palm empty fruit bunch steam gasification for hydrogen production

Biomass steam gasification with in-situ carbon dioxide capture using CaO exhibits good prospects for the production of hydrogen rich gas. The present work focuses on the process modeling for hydrogen production from oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) using MATLAB for parametric study. The model incorporates the reaction kinetics calculations of the steam gasification of EFB (C_3.4H_4.1O_3.3) with in-situ CO₂ capture, as well as mass and energy balances calculations. The developed model is used to investigate the effect of temperature and steam/biomass ratio on the hydrogen purity, yield and efficiency. Based on the results, hydrogen purity of more than 76.1 vol.% can be achieved. The maximum hydrogen yield predicted at the outlet of the gasifier is 102.6 g/kg of EFB. It is found that increment in temperature and steam/biomass ratio promotes hydrogen production. However, it is also predicted that the efficiency decreases when using more steam. Due to the still on-going empirical work, the results are compared with published literatures on different systems. The comparison shows that the results are in agreement to some extent due to the different basis.     

Comparison of Oleo‐ vs Petro‐Sourcing of Fatty Alcohols via Cradle‐to‐Gate Life Cycle Assessment

Alcohol ethoxylates surfactants are produced via ethoxylation of fatty alcohol (FA) with ethylene oxide. The source of FA could be either palm kernel oil (PKO) or petrochemicals. The study aimed to compare the potential environmental impacts for PKO‐derived FA (PKO‐FA) and petrochemicals‐derived FA (petro‐FA). Cradle‐to‐gate life cycle assessment has been performed for this purpose because it enables understanding of the impacts across the life cycle and impact categories. The results show that petro‐FA has overall lower average greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (～2.97 kg CO₂e) compared to PKO‐FA (～5.27 kg CO₂e). (1) The practices in land use change for palm plantations, (2) end‐of‐life treatment for palm oil mill wastewater effluent and (3) end‐of‐life treatment for empty fruit bunches are the three determining factors for the environmental impacts of PKO‐FA. For petro‐FA, n‐olefin production, ethylene production and thermal energy production are the main factors. We found the judicious decisions on land use change, effluent treatment and solid waste treatment are key to making PKO‐FA environmentally sustainable. The sensitivity results show the broad distribution for PKO‐FA due to varying practices in palm cultivation. PKO‐FA has higher impacts on average for 12 out of 18 impact categories evaluated. For the base case, when accounted for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses results, the study finds that marine eutrophication, agricultural land occupation, natural land occupation, fossil depletion, particulate matter formation, and water depletion are affected by the sourcing decision. The sourcing of FA involves trade‐offs and depends on the specific practices through the PKO life cycle from an environmental impact perspective.     

Hydrogen production from fluidized bed steam reforming of hydrocarbons

Steam reforming of methane, kerosene and heavy oil over a nickel/alumina commercial catalyst and other materials such as limestone, dolomite and iron ore, was studied using a 5 cm i.d. fluidized bed reactor. The effects of operating parameters on conversion, hydrogen yield, product gas composition and elutriation of fine catalysts were investigated. It was found that a fluidized bed is flexible enough to handle various feedstocks, including hydrocarbons heavier than naphtha, because it permits the addition of catalyst to, or withdrawals of, coked catalyst from the bed. The yield of hydrogen obtained from fluidized bed steam reforming of heavy oil at 800‡C over limestone was similar to that obtained over commercial nickel-based catalyst. This indicates that limestone could be a promising catalyst for the production of hydrogen from heavy oil. However, hydrogen yield decreased with reaction time in the experiments using the limestone catalyst. The main cause of the decrease in hydrogen yield was elutriation of fine catalysts from the bed during the reaction.     

The Effect of Fiber Bleaching Treatment on the Properties of Poly(lactic acid)/Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fiber Composites

In this work, biodegradable composites from poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber were prepared by melt blending method. Prior to mixing, the fiber was modified through bleaching treatment using hydrogen peroxide. Bleached fiber composite showed an improvement in mechanical properties as compared to untreated fiber composite due to the enhanced fiber/matrix interfacial adhesion. Interestingly, fiber bleaching treatment also improved the physical appearance of the composite. The study was extended by blending the composites with commercially available masterbatch colorant.     

Effects of ten year application of empty fruit bunches in an oil palm plantation on soil chemical properties

The oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB), a major waste product of the palm oil mills, were earlier incinerated at the mills and had contributed to air quality problems in Malaysia. This lead to the introduction of the Malaysian Environmental Air Quality Regulation in 1978 which prompted mills to look for alternative management methods in disposal of the EFB. A convenient method is applying the EFB to the oil palm field near the mill for nutrient cycling. A study was conducted to investigate the effects of 10 years of EFB yearly application in an oil palm plantation, as a source of nutrients, on the chemical properties of a well-drained, highly weathered acidic soil, classified as Typic Kandiudult. The experimental plots receiving 3 treatments, i.e. chemical fertilization, without EFB application (CHEM)), application of 150 kg EFB palm⁻¹ year⁻¹ (EFB150) and application of 300 kg EFB palm⁻¹ year⁻¹ (EFB300) with four replications, from 1983 to 1992. The EFB was applied in heaps in the middle of every 4 palms. The cumulative addition of EFB had increased the soil pH by two units with application of EFB300 and a one unit increase with EFB150 in the 0–60 cm soil layer, compared to CHEM. The application of EFB even at the lower rate decreased significantly exchangeable Al contents and the cation exchange capacity increased up to 60 cm soil depth. Overall increases in exchangeable bases were also observed in soils treated with EFB. The increase was more evident in EFB300 compared to EFB150. Organic C in the topsoil increased from 1.49 to 2.50% and 2.73% in EFB150 and EFB300, respectively. There was also an increase in total nitrogen with EFB application but only in the topsoil. An overall analysis of the yield response in the 10 year-period shows that EFB300 resulted in higher fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield than EFB150 and CHEM while the yield of EFB150 was not significantly different from CHEM. This study showed that it is beneficial to dispose the EFB by applying them in the oil palm fields around the mills.     

An investigation into physicochemical characteristics of ash produced from combustion of oil palm biomass wastein a boiler

Ash derived from combustion of Malaysian oil palm biomass (empty fruit bunches consisting of fibers) was physically and chemically characterized in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of its specific properties in terms of toxicity, compositions and reusability. Principal analyses conducted include particle size distribution, scanning electron microscopy, elemental dispersive X-ray, elemental analysis, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) as well as thermogravimetric, X-ray diffractometry and Fourier-transform infrared analyses. TCLP result indicated that the oil palm ash (OPA) should not be classified as toxic wastes in terms of heavy metal leachability since leachable copper, cadmium, lead and nickel concentrations were detected below the stipulated leachability limits. It was determined that the OPA contained high amount of potassium as well as presence of silica which implied its suitability to be reused as crude fertilizer or cement replacement material.     

Phospholipids from palm-pressed fiber

Palm-pressed fiber, a by-product of palm oil milling, was extracted successively with hexane and 95% ethanol; the ethanol extracts yielded 46,800 ppm of phospholipids. The phospholipid composition, as analyzed by HPLC coupled with an ELSD, was found to be predominantly PC, PE, phosphatidylglycerol, and PA; as expected, the FA were more unsaturated than the TAG. Palm-pressed fiber is estimated to be able to provide 21,645 tonnes of palm lecithin based on the present total world production of fresh fruit bunches and thus be an alternative source of lecithin, which is normally obtained from soybeans.     

Tensile properties of a poly(vinyl chloride) composite filled with poly(methyl methacrylate) grafted to oil palm empty fruit bunches

The influence of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber and oil palm empty fruit bunches grafted with poly(methyl methacrylate) (OPEFB‐g‐PMMA) on the tensile properties of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) was investigated. The OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber was first prepared with the optimum conditions for the grafting reaction, which were determined in our previous study. To produce composites, the PVC resin, OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber or ungrafted OPEFB fiber, and other additives were first dry‐blended with a laboratory blender before being milled into sheets on a two‐roll mill. Test specimens were then hot‐pressed, and then the tensile properties were determined. A comparison with the composite filled with the ungrafted OPEFB fiber showed that the tensile strength and elongation at break increased, whereas Young's modulus decreased, with the incorporation of 20 phr OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber into the PVC matrix. The trend of the tensile properties obtained in this study was supported by functional group analysis, glass‐transition temperature measurements, and surface morphological analysis. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010