Pull-Out Response of a Steel Post Inserted in a Pre-Drilled HDPE Cylinder: Analytical and Finite Element Analyses Using Pressure-Dependent Friction

Abstract

For the aim of fixing and stabilizing the Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) tibial component, pull-out strength of the post is one of the most important factors to be considered. The material properties of bone, coupled with the principal dimensions of bone/post assembly such as diameter, interference fit and implantation length, may affect the pull-out strength of the post fixation. In this study, a cylindrical stainless steel post inserted in a pre-drilled High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) cylinder with an initial interference fit was taken as a model to assess the contribution of post fixation to the initial stability of TKA tibial component. Pull-out experiments were carried out for different initial interference fits and implantation lengths. Under pull-out loading, the micro-slip initiation and propagation at the post/cylinder interface was found to be progressive and was modeled using Coulomb friction at the interface. In order to examine the experimental ultimate pull-out force results, an analytical model was developed. The analytical model was fitted to the experimental results by adjusting the friction coefficient for the considered ranges of initial interference fit and implantation length. It was found that friction coefficient depends on initial interference fit (Δr) as well as on the initial contact pressure (σ0). For the considered interference fit values Δr = 01 mm, Δr = 02 mm and Δr = 03 mm (σ₀ = 1362 MPa, σ₀ = 2724 MPa and σ₀ = 4086 MPa), the values of adjusted friction coefficient are 0.091, 0.067 and 0.058, respectively. Finite Element simulation was also carried out for the pull-out test using the ABAQUS program. It was found that numerical, analytical and experimental results are all in good agreement.     

Effect of torque loading on the pull-out response of a steel post inserted in a polyethylene cylinder

Posts are used in various implant designs to contribute to the short- and long-term fixation stability of artificial joints. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of torque loading on the pull-out response of a steel post inserted into high-density polyethylene (HDPE) material. An experimental apparatus was designed and fabricated to perform mechanical characterization of a steel post embedded in a polymer cylinder with initial interference fit under pull-out, torque and combined torque/pull-out loadings. To analyze the effect of preload applied torque to the load transfer at the post-fixation interface under pull-out loading, we have chosen HDPE material with uniform mechanical and tribological properties. Under pull-out loading, the micro-slip initiation and propagation at the post-HDPE interface was found to be progressive and assuming Coulomb friction at the interface, the friction coefficient was calculated from the measured pull-out force. In the torque loading condition it was found that the torque dropped suddenly from the maximum value to an initial dynamic sliding torque value. The interface behaves like a chemically bonded one, and static and dynamic friction coefficients were determined. It has been found under combined torque/pull-out conditions that in addition to the reduction of the maximum pull-out force, the preload applied torque generates two instabilities in the pull-out behavior. The first one happens once the maximum pull-out force is reached where the load falls to a level required for the post extraction from the HDPE cylinder. The second instability takes place during the extraction process for a residual (critical) implantation length which depends on the preload applied torque value. This latter instability was marked by a sudden rotation of the HDPE cylinder against the steel post.     

Finite element analysis of load transfer at a fibre–matrix interface during pull-out loading

Load transfer ability of the fibre–matrix interface is well known to mainly control the mechanical behaviour of fibre-reinforced materials. This load transfer phenomenon is of great importance in dentistry when a post is used for fixing a ceramic crown on the tooth. The pull-out test has been well accepted as the most important micromechanical test for evaluating the interaction properties between the fibre and matrix. In this study, a finite element model is developed to analyse the pull-out process of a steel fibre from an epoxy matrix. Based on the pull-out force–displacement curves, developed in our previous experimental work, specific load transfer laws at the fibre–matrix interface have been proposed for each stage of the pull-out process, i.e., before and after fibre–matrix debonding. Predicted initial extraction forces for different implantation lengths were fitted to experimental values and an initial interference fit of 4 μm was determined. An interfacial shear strength of 21 MPa was then determined by fitting the predicted debonding forces for different implantation lengths to the experimental values. According to the load transfer laws considered, analysis of the interfacial shear stress indicates that fibre–matrix debonding initiates simultaneously at both the lower and upper extremities of the interface.     

Indirect estimation of fiber/polymer bond strength and interfacial friction from maximum load values recorded in the microbond and pull-out tests. Part II: Critical energy release rate

A new approach to experimental data treatment in the pull-out and microbond tests has been developed. It uses the relationship between the maximum force recorded in these tests and the embedded length ('scale factor') to separately determine adhesional interfacial parameters (critical energy release rate, local bond strength) and interfacial friction in debonded regions. The new method does not require the measurement of the debond force, which corresponds to interfacial crack initiation, and is, therefore, much more convenient and simpler than 'direct' techniques involving continuous monitoring of crack growth. Using the equation for the current crack length as a function of the load applied to the fiber, based on a fracture mechanics analysis of interfacial debonding, we modeled the pull-out and microbond experiments and obtained the maximum force versus the embedded length. By varying the critical energy release rate and interfacial frictional stress to fit experimental plots, both interfacial parameters were determined for several fiber-polymer pairs. Effects of specimen geometry, residual thermal stresses, and interfacial friction on the measured values are discussed. The results are compared with those obtained with our similar stress-based approach. The energy criterion works when the embedded length is not very short, and in this range of embedded length it is better than the stress criterion. Both criteria can be complementarily used for interface characterization.     

Analysis of a pull-out test with real specimen geometry. Part II: the effect of meniscus

This paper continues our study on the platelet model of the pull-out specimen, in which the matrix droplet shape is approximated by a set of thin parallel disks with the diameters varying along the embedded fiber. Using this model, the fiber tensile stress and the interfacial shear stress profiles were calculated for real-shaped matrix droplets, including menisci (wetting cones) on the fibers, taking into account residual thermal stresses and interfacial friction. Then, these profiles were used to numerically simulate the processes of crack initiation and propagation in the pull-out test and to obtain theoretical force-displacement curves for specimens with different embedded lengths and wetting cone angles. Our simulations showed that the interfacial crack in real-shaped droplets initiated at very small (practically zero) force applied to the fiber, in contrast to the popular ‘equivalent cylinder’ approximation. As a result, the equivalent cylinder approach underestimated the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) value determined from the pull-out test and at the same time overestimated the interfacial frictional stress; the smaller was the wetting cone angle, the greater the difference. We also investigated the effects of the embedded fiber length and interfacial frictional stress in debonded areas on the calculated IFSS. The simulated force–displacement curves for the real-shaped droplets showed better agreement with experimental curves than those plotted using the equivalent cylinder approach.     

The bond and flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete elements strengthened with near surface mounted prestressing steel (PS) bars

Abstract

The main objective of this work is to study the performance of prestressing steel (PS) bars as reinforcements in the reinforced concrete (RC) elements strengthened by the near-surface mounted method (NSM). The work includes two parts. In the first part, direct pull-out tests are performed in order to study the bond performance between PS reinforcement and concrete. The influences of groove sizes and PS surface conditions (smooth and sand coated) are evaluated. The results show that the sand coated PS (PS-Sc) reinforcement has the best adhesion behavior compared with the smooth bar, and its pull-out force is increased by 48%. For this reason, the PS-Sc bars are used in the second part of this work as NSM reinforcement to strengthen RC beams subjected to bending forces. Then, four-point bending tests are carried out to understand the flexural behavior of strengthened RC beams with PS-Sc reinforcements of different lengths and ratios. The obtained results demonstrate that the use of NSM-PS-Sc bars strengthening technique leads to important enhancement in the load carrying capacity of the RC beams. The first crack load and ultimate load of the strengthened RC beams attain 71.41 and 65.67%, respectively, which are higher than those of the control beam. Furthermore, the experimental values show a good agreement with the analytical values in both the ultimate deflection and the ultimate load. This proves that the NSM-PS-Sc bars studied in this work are promising reinforcement of the RC beams.     

BFRP筋碱激发混凝土粘结性能试验研究与数值模拟

玄武岩纤维增强复合筋(BFRP筋)碱激发混凝土为海洋环境下混凝土的耐久性提供安全保障。在其中心拉拔试验的基础上,采用分离式模型,运用ABAQUS有限元软件进行粘结滑移性能数值模拟与分析。通过试验数据,得出适用于BFRP筋碱激发混凝土的粘结滑移本构模型以及碱激发混凝土的塑性损伤模型,构建了基于非线性弹簧单元的数值模型,试验结果与计算结果吻合程度较好,验证了模型的准确性。试验与模拟结果表明:粘结长度为2.5d、5d(d为BFRP筋直径)的试件均发生筋材拔出破坏,粘结长度为10d的试件均发生劈裂破坏;BFRP筋与碱激发混凝土之间的粘结应力分布并不均匀,随着粘结长度和筋材直径的增大,极限粘结强度逐渐减小;当BFRP筋直径d=12 mm,粘结长度为2.5d、5d和10d的碱激发混凝土试块极限粘结强度分别为13.92 MPa、13.56 MPa和12.60 MPa,较相同粘结长度的普通混凝土试件,其极限粘结强度分别提高6.58%、10.97%和9.76%。     

Predicting the Strength of Adhesively Bonded T-joints Under Cyclic Temperature using a Cohesive Zone Model

The objective of this study is to analyze the effect of cyclic-temperature environment on adhesively bonded T-joints. Experiments on steel and aluminum T-peel joints were conducted to illustrate the influence of cyclic temperature on the ultimate load of T-joints. An environmental degradation factor Deg was utilized in conjunction with a cohesive zone model (CZM) to simulate the strength of T-joints caused by temperature variation. The experimental results showed that long-term cyclic-temperature exposure caused significant degradation on the ultimate load of the T-joints. And with the increase of the temperature cycles experienced, the ultimate load of the T-joints gradually decreased. In order to model the adhesive layer between joint components and simulate the damage propagation in the interface, a CZM implemented in the finite element code ABAQUS was used. Comparison between the experimental and numerical results proved the adopted modeling procedure be successful and effective.     

Indirect estimation of fiber/polymer bond strength and interfacial friction from maximum load values recorded in the microbond and pull-out tests. Part I: local bond strength

The techniques aimed at adhesion strength measurement between reinforcing fibers and polymer matrices (the pull-out and microbond tests) involve the measurement of the force, F _max, required to pull out a fiber whose end is embedded in the matrix. Then, this maximum force value is used to calculate such interfacial parameters as the apparent bond strength, τ_app, and the local interfacial shear strength (IFSS), τ_d. However, it has been demonstrated that the F _max value is influenced by interfacial friction in already debonded regions, and, therefore, these parameters are not purely 'adhesional' but depend, in an intricate way, on interfacial adhesion and friction. In the last few years, several techniques for separate determination of adhesion and friction in micromechanical tests have been developed, but their experimental realization is rather complicated, because they require an accurate value of the external load at the moment of crack initiation. We have developed a new technique which uses the relationship between the maximum force and the embedded length ('scale factor') to separately measure fiber-matrix interfacial adhesion and friction. Using the equation for the current crack length as a function of the applied load, based on a stress criterion of interfacial debonding, we modeled the pull-out and microbond experiments and obtained the maximum force value versus the embedded length. By varying τ_d and interfacial friction, τ_f, to fit experimental plots, both interfacial parameters were estimated. The micromechanical tests were modeled for three types of specimen geometries (cylindrical specimens, spherical droplets, and matrix hemispheres in the pull-out test) with different levels of residual thermal stresses and interfacial friction. The effect of all these factors on the experimental results is discussed, and the importance of specimen geometry is demonstrated. One of the most interesting results is that the 'ultimate' IFSS (the limiting τ_app as the embedded length tends to zero) is not always equal to the 'local' bond strength.     

Unified tensile model for unidirectional ceramic matrix composites with degraded fibers and interface

In order to overcome the roughness of the previously proposed micromechanical model [Acta Mech. Sin. (2011) 382], an enhanced multiscale analytical model was thus developed based on the rule of mixture, shear-lag theory and statistical approach to forecast the load carrying capacity of the prestressed ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) subjected to high-temperature oxidation. For comprehensive characterization of the mechanical degradation mechanisms, the oxidation induced fiber necking (or embrittlement) and fiber-matrix interface weakening were both taken into account. The suggested model was then applied to 2D-C/SiC composites. The influences of interface friction resistance, interface recession length, fiber necking factor and oxidation duration upon the residual mechanical property were investigated. Parametric analysis demonstrates that the modified formulations are much more reasonable than the previous model. The predicted residual tensile modulus and strength for the 2D-C/SiC composite agree well with the experimental data and furthermore the microscopic damage mechanisms were correlated properly with the macroscopic fracture morphologies.     

Analysis of the pullout of single fibers from low-density polyethylene

In the present work, a single-fiber pullout test was used to study the interface/interphase between various fibers and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and between glass fibers and a range of other thermoplastic matrices. For well-bonded fibers, experimental evidence suggests the involvement of plastic deformation and strain-hardening prior to debonding and pullout. The interfacial shear strength was determined to be the ultimate shear strength of the matrix and was found to be insensitive to the fiber surface structure. A new theoretical model was developed to predict the relationship between the debonding force and the embedded length. The contribution of friction to the debonding force was found to be insignificant when compared with the contribution of plastic deformation. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

采用ICP-AES法测定低钢、不锈钢和铁基高温合金中铈含量

为了从铈的谱线列表中选取合适分析线,以实现铁基样品中铈的准确测定。采用电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱(ICP-AES)法和干扰系数法(IEC)模型相结合,建立了低钢、不锈钢和铁基高温合金中铈含量的测试方法。在已优化的仪器参数条件下,通过对铈系列标准溶液和不同牌号的铁基样品进行分析,可选取380.152、401.239、404.076、413.765 nm作为测定铁基样品中铈的分析线,并进一步研究了这4条谱线下酸的影响与共存元素的干扰行为。结果表明,在测定低钢时优选401.239 nm为分析线,不锈钢优选401.239 nm(Cr干扰)和413.765 nm(W干扰),铁基高温合金选取404.076 nm和413.765 nm(W干扰),并对存在元素干扰的分析线实施干扰校正后,曲线的线性关系得到极大改善,且铁基样品的测定结果满足准确度要求。     

Modeling bond strength of corroded reinforcement without stirrups

Deterioration of bond strength between concrete and reinforcement is of great importance in studying the strength of structural members with corroded reinforcements. A simple analytical model is proposed to demonstrate the effect of corrosion of reinforcing bar on reduction of bond strength. The corrosion pressure due to expansive action of corrosion products before and after corrosion cracking is firstly estimated. Then, reduction of bar confinement caused by cover cracking, change of friction coefficient between the steel and the concrete, and reduction of the friction force on the bearing face as well as deterioration of the ribs of the deformed bars due to steel corrosion are considered in calculating the mechanical interactions between reinforcing bar and concrete. As a result, the bond strength of corroded bars is calculated. The theoretical results are compared with the experimental results and agree with those results well.     

不同龄期钢纤维增强水泥砂浆纤维拉拔试验与模拟研究

钢纤维增强水泥基复合材料作为一种多相复合材料,其增强增韧效果的发挥依赖于钢纤维与基体之间的界面粘结性能。通过开展不同龄期的钢纤维增强水泥基复合材料单根纤维拉拔试验及数值模拟研究,分析了龄期对钢纤维增强水泥砂浆界面粘结性能的影响,建立了不同龄期的单根纤维拉拔细观模型,通过将模拟结果与试验结果进行对比验证模型的有效性。根据所建立的细观模型分别对不同龄期钢纤维增强水泥砂浆纤维-基体间的界面粘结作用机理及纤维-基体间粘结表面在纤维拔出过程中的应力变化进行了分析。结果表明:所建立细观模型模拟得到的纤维最大拉拔力及荷载-滑移曲线与试验结果吻合较好,钢纤维的最大拉拔力及钢纤维-水泥砂浆基体的界面粘结强度均随着龄期的增加而增加;在7 d龄期内界面粘结强度的增长速度较快,7 d龄期后增长速度放缓;随着龄期的增加,不同龄期段的界面粘结强度的增长率逐渐减小并趋于稳定。采用拟合得到的粘结表面材料参数能够有效模拟各龄期下单根钢纤维从水泥砂浆中的拔出过程。     

钢纤维改性橡胶混凝土与变形钢筋的粘结性能

本试验共设计制作4组钢纤维(钢纤维体积率分别为0%、0.5%、1.0%、1.5%)改性橡胶混凝土粘结试件,采用中心拉拔试验的方法,系统研究了钢纤维体积率的变化对粘结破坏形态、初始粘结强度、极限粘结强度以及粘结滑移曲线的影响规律。研究结果表明:随着钢纤维体积率的增大,与橡胶混凝土相比,初始粘结强度分别提高了5.37%、8.35%、0.89%,极限粘结强度分别提高了9.44%、16.49%、12.91%。适量掺入钢纤维可以显著改善粘结试件的破坏形态。上升段、下降段以及残余段共同组成钢纤维改性橡胶混凝土的粘结滑移曲线,且粘结滑移曲线的饱满程度以及上升段斜率随着钢纤维体积率的增加而增加。基于试验结果,建立了钢纤维改性橡胶混凝土与变形钢筋的粘结滑移本构方程,该方程能为其在结构设计中提供一定的参考。     

钢制薄壁圆筒形压力容器的可靠性安全系数

应用可靠性设计方法中的强度—载荷干涉模型,考虑设计、制造、检验、操作及安全监察等因素的影响,建立了分析初始可靠度的力学模型,对钢制薄壁内压圆筒的静强度和钢制薄壁外压圆筒临界失稳强度大于实际最大栽荷的初始可靠度进行了研究,提出了按所要求的初始可靠度确定静强度安全系数与临界失稳强度稳定系数的方法。     

Finite element analysis of composite T-joints used in wind turbine blades

Abstract

This paper presents a finite element (FE) analysis of the fracture behaviour of composite T-joints with various fibre reinforcement architectures subjected to pull-out loading. The FE model accounts for the effect of interface strength and interlaminar fracture energy on the ultimate load to failure; a linear softening fracture based law is adopted to describe crack growth in the form of delamination. The numerical simulation shows that the failure load increases with increasing interlaminar strength, which controls delamination initiation. The FE also demonstrates that the failure load increases with increasing interface fracture energy and the delamination propagation depends largely upon the fracture energy, which is enhanced by introducing interlaminar veils or through-thickness tuft yarns (stitching). Predictions were validated using experimental data for E-glass fibre/epoxy T-joints subjected to a tensile pull-out loading. The load–displacement response from the FE analysis is in a good agreement with measurements, illustrating the effectiveness of through thickness tufting that results to progressive, a more ‘ductile’, rather than abrupt catastrophic failure.     

Analysis of a pull-out test with real specimen geometry. Part I: matrix droplet in the shape of a spherical segment

We compared two models of the pull-out specimen – the ‘equivalent cylinder’ and the platelet models in which the matrix droplet is represented as a set of thin parallel disks with the diameters varying along the embedded fiber to approximate the real droplet shape. Analytical expressions for the profiles of the fiber tensile stress and the interfacial shear stress have been derived for the matrix droplet in the shape of a spherical segment, including the effects of residual thermal stresses and interfacial friction. Using these expressions, we analyzed the process of crack initiation and propagation in the platelet model and investigated the effect of the specimen shape on the force–displacement curves. The interfacial stress near the loaded fiber end in the platelet model is higher than in the equivalent cylinder model, which gives rise to earlier crack initiation and smoother shape of the force–displacement curve. As a result, the calculated interfacial shear strength values may be underestimated by 10–20%, if the equivalent cylinder is used instead of the real droplet shape. A method of correction to the equivalent cylinder model in order to avoid this underestimation is proposed.     

The determination of the coefficient of dynamic friction of organic powder compacts on steel

A practical experimental model system has been successfully used to study the frictional response of organic powder compacts sliding across a polished steel plate, representative of the die bore of a production compaction system. This system offers a controlled approach to the study of frictional phenomena occurring during compaction and facilitates a more detailed investigation into the fundamental mechanisms of friction than a simple resolution of forces within a punch and die apparatus.For acetylsalicyclic acid sliding on steel, the dynamic friction coefficient was found to be dependent on the displacement and, to a lesser extent, the initial normal load, whereas for PTFE on steel, the dynamic friction coefficient was independent of displacement and load and estimated at 0.09. Thus, soft organic materials exhibit very different frictional characteristics to those of brittle materials. These differences reflect the differing importance and magnitude of the three frictional components, adhesion, shear and ploughing.     

Design of hybrid steel-composite interference fitted and adhesively bonded connections

The work deals with the definition of the axial push-out force in hybrid connections realized by means of a carbon-epoxy composite bush which is press fitted into a steel housing and, eventually, supplemented with anaerobic adhesive, in order to obtain an innovative (hybrid) journal bearing. Lamè's solution has been extended to orthotropic material (composite bush) in order to evaluate analytically the coupling pressure due to interference assembly, while experimental campaigns have provided the values of coefficient of friction and of the adhesive shear strength (steel-composite). The mere application of the anaerobic adhesive before the assembly operation does not provide any sensible increase in push out force especially if compared with metal–metal interference connections. In order to take advantage of the adhesive strength, specific hoop channels for the adhesive hosting have been realised on the external surface of the composite bush.