Acquiring writing revision and self-regulatory skill through observation and emulation.

The influences of modeling and social feedback on the acquisition of writing revision were studied with 72 college students. Students watching a coping female model gradually improving her writing technique on a sentence-combining task were hypothesized to surpass students observing a mastery model perform the technique flawlessly on a writing-skill measure and an array of self-regulatory measures, such as self-satisfaction reactions, self-efficacy perceptions, and intrinsic interest in the task. Students observing a mastery model were expected, in turn, to surpass those learning without the benefit of modeling on these same measures. Support for both hypotheses was found. Social feedback during enactive performance assisted learners from all modeling groups in acquiring writing and self-regulatory skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More on the Fragility of Performance: Choking Under Pressure in Mathematical Problem Solving.

In 3 experiments, the authors examined mathematical problem solving performance under pressure. In Experiment 1, pressure harmed performance on only unpracticed problems with heavy working memory demands. In Experiment 2, such high-demand problems were practiced until their answers were directly retrieved from memory. This eliminated choking under pressure. Experiment 3 dissociated practice on particular problems from practice on the solution algorithm by imposing a high-pressure test on problems practiced 1, 2, or 50 times each. Infrequently practiced high-demand problems were still performed poorly under pressure, whereas problems practiced 50 times each were not. These findings support distraction theories of choking in math, which contrasts with considerable evidence for explicit monitoring theories of choking in sensorimotor skills. This contrast suggests a skill taxonomy based on real-time control structures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving fourth-grade students' composition skills: Effects of strategy instruction and self-regulation procedures.

Extending S. Graham and K. R. Harris's (2003) self-regulated strategy development model, this study examined whether self-regulation procedures would increase the effectiveness of a writing strategies training designed to improve 4th graders' (N = 113) composition skills. Students who were taught composition strategies in conjunction with self-regulation procedures were compared with (a) students who were taught the same strategies but received no instruction in self-regulation and (b) students who received didactic lessons in composition. Both at posttest and at maintenance (5 weeks after the instruction), strategy plus self-regulation students wrote more complete and qualitatively better stories than students in the 2 comparison conditions. They also displayed superior performance at a transfer task requiring students to recall essential parts of an orally presented story. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practice schedules and the use of component skills in problem solving.

In motor and verbal learning, random practice schedules produce poorer acquisition performance but superior retention relative to blocked practice. We extend this contextual interference effect to the case of learning cognitive procedural skills to be used in problem solving. Subjects in three experiments practiced calculation with Boolean functions. After this acquisition phase, subjects solved problems requiring these procedures. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated superior transfer to problem solving for skills acquired under random schedules. In Experiment 3, subjects practiced component skills in a blocked schedule, with one of four tasks—same–different judgment, mental arithmetic, short-term memory, or long-term memory—intervening between trials. For same–different judgments and mental arithmetic, transfer performance was comparable to that found for random schedules in Experiments 1 and 2. This result suggests that the differences depend on processing rather than storage demands of intertrial activity. Implications for theories of problem solving and part–whole transfer are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neurophysiological indices of strategy development and skill acquisition

In order to examine neurophysiological changes associated with the development of cognitive and visuomotor strategies and skills, spectral features of the EEG were measured as participants learned to perform new tasks. In one experiment eight individuals practiced working memory tasks that required development of either spatial or verbal rehearsal and updating strategies. In a second experiment six individuals practiced a video game with a difficult visuomotor tracking component. The alpha rhythm, which is attenuated by functional cortical activation, was affected by task practice. In both experiments, a lower-frequency, centrally distributed alpha component increased between practice sessions in a task-independent fashion, reflecting an overall decrease in the extent of cortical activation after practice. A second, higher-frequency, posterior component of the alpha rhythm displayed task-specific practice effects. Practice in the verbal working memory task resulted in an increase of this signal over right posterior regions, an effect not seen after practice with the spatial working memory task or with the video game. This between-task difference presumably reflects a continued involvement of the posterior region of the right hemisphere in tasks that invoke visuospatial processes. This finding thus provides neurophysiological evidence for the formation of a task-specific neurocognitive strategy. In the second experiment a third component of the alpha rhythm, localized over somatomotor cortex, was enhanced in conjunction with acquisition of tracking skill. These alpha band results suggest that cortical regions not necessary for task performance become less active as skills develop. In both experiments the frontal midline (Fm) theta rhythm also displayed increases over the course of test sessions. This signal is associated with states of focused concentration, and its enhancement might reflect the conscious control over attention associated with maintenance of a task-appropriate mental set. Overall, the results suggest that the EEG can be used to monitor practice-related changes in the patterns of cortical activity that are associated with task processing. Additionally, these results highlight the importance of ensuring that subjects have developed stable strategies for performance before drawing inferences about the functional architecture underlying specific cognitive processes.     

The Health Research Promotion program (SGO). XII. Evaluation of the section 'Health Care Research-experimental postgraduate training of general practitioners'

As a part of the SGO Health Research Promotion Programme, programme section Health Care Research, an experimental core training was instituted for general practitioners. The aim of the training was to provide a small number of family physicians with clinical and medical expertise relevant to general practice that would enable them to play a leading role in the development of academic general practice medicine. Seven general physicians followed a self-composed training programme of 2 to 3 years, consisting of active participation in patient care in Dutch clinics and clinics in other countries. The experiences gained during the SGO programme were used by the Dutch College of General Practitioners to develop a nationwide superior professional training course.     

Effects of goal setting and procedural facilitation on the revising behavior and writing performance of students with writing and learning problems.

This study examined the effects of a revising goal to "add information" on the revising behavior and writing performance of 5th- and 6th-grade students with writing and learning problems. The authors also examined whether procedural assistance in meeting the goal to add information would enhance students' performance. In comparison to students assigned a general revising goal to make their paper better, students assigned a goal to add information made more meaning-based changes, particularly additions, when revising their papers. Most importantly, the goal to add information resulted in greater improvement in text quality than the general revising goal. Use of the procedural facilitator to accomplish the goal to add information, however, did not appreciably enhance students' revising behavior or the quality of their text. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expertise effects in memory recall: Comment on Vicente and Wang (1998).

K. J. Vicente and J. H. Wang proposed a "constraint attunement hypothesis" to explain the large effects of domain expertise on memory recall observed in a number of task domains. They claimed to have found serious defects in alternative explanations of these effects, which their theory overcomes. Reexamination of the evidence shows that their theory is not novel but has been anticipated by those they criticized and that other current published theories of the phenomena do not have the defects that Vicente and Wang attributed to them. Vicente and Wang's views reflect underlying differences about (a) emphasis on performance versus process in psychology and (b) how theories and empirical knowledge interact and progress with the development of a science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specificity of training for motor skill under physical fatigue

The purpose of the present study was to test the specificity of training principle from exercise physiology in the context of motor skill acquisition. Thirty-six college females were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group and both groups received 54 practice trials on a ladder climb task over four consecutive days (3,18,18 and 15 trials/day, respectively). The control group practiced under conditions of heavy interpolated fatigue on the first 3 days with day 3 representing the heavy-fatigue criterion conditions, while the experimental group did the same except for day 2 when a vowel-cancelling task was substituted for the fatigue task. On day 4 both groups practiced under the second criterion of non-fatigue conditions. Fatigue was induced by a step-up task so that a minimum HR of 180 beats/min was attained prior to each ladder trial. The results supported the specificity hypothesis that practicing a gross motor task under conditions of heavy-fatigue would facilitate performance of that task under criterion heavy-fatigue conditions. For the second criterion of non-fatigue practice, the data appeared to support the specificity principle but the rigorous test of the differences did not reach statistical significance. The overall evidence supports the position that regards heavy physical fatigue as a variable that can cause changes in the nature of certain motor skills so that the specificity of training principle becomes applicable.     

Memory for order of operations in the acquisition and transfer of sequential cognitive skills.

The authors report a series of experiments in which questions about the nature of memory for the order of processing operations in sequential processing skills (i.e., skills that require proper sequencing of a set of component operations) were addressed. Evidence from 3 studies of a sequential number computation skill suggested that memory for processing sequences that are general to many instances is more instrumental than sequence memory that is instance specific. Results generalized over task versions that differed markedly in the number of processing sequences and the number of unique stimulus instances per sequences. General sequence memory appeared to develop relatively early in practice and to underlie errors in transfer that resembled einstellung effects. The findings are discussed with respect to memory mechanisms postulated in recent theories of skill acquisition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peripheral blood stem cell transplantation as an interdisciplinary challenge--theory and practice

RN-to-BSN students reflect an array of experiences often so diverse the traditional student placement challenges neither students nor preceptors. In response to this need for an alternate to the standard clinical placement for RN students, a collaborative model was developed. Because of dramatic changes in the health care environment, the "traditional" placement for students is no longer readily available nor necessarily appropriate. These circumstances, combined with the uniqueness of RN-to-BSN students prompted the authors to develop the Preceptoring Map. The model was developed in collaboration with the research department of Massachusetts General Hospital. The Preceptoring Map designates two tracks, the N track and the P track. Using Benner's novice to expert theories, the tracks were operationalized to the student population. Determining which track will be most appropriate is multifaceted. Included in the evaluation process are the students' work experiences and expertise, critical-thinking skills assessment, and self-assessment. Faculty review these outcomes, combined with an indepth interview with the placement coordinator, to match students and preceptors for the most successful clinical placements.     

A further test of the general monitoring skill hypothesis.

This study tested the general monitoring skill hypothesis, which states that skilled adult learners monitor their comprehension using domain-general metacognitive knowledge in addition to domain-specific knowledge. College students completed 8 tests of fluid and crystallized ability. The 8 tests yielded 3 performance components, whereas measures of monitoring yielded 2 principal components. These findings supported 2 main conclusions: Monitoring scores are correlated across multiple domains, and individuals may possess separate general monitoring skills for fluid and crystallized tasks. The authors also examined the degree to which modular, information-encapsulation, and domain-general theories of cognition accommodated these findings. Domain-general theories, such as the general monitoring skill hypothesis, provided the best explanation of the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Development of Comprehension of Main Ideas in Narratives: Evidence From the Selection of Titles.

The authors investigated readers' ability to identify main ideas in narrative texts and the development of this ability. In particular, the authors explored students' sensitivity to the goal structure of narratives. Third-, 6th-, 9th-, and 11th-grade students read narratives in which goal statements were systematically varied on 2 structural dimensions: position in the text's hierarchical structure and number of connections to other statements. As a measure of main idea comprehension, students selected titles for the narratives from among the goals or associated outcomes. Hierarchical position, but not number of connections, influenced title choices. Even the youngest students were able to identify the main ideas, but they did so less consistently than did older students. These findings have implications for theories of text comprehension development and for educational practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Morphological Development in Children's Writing.

This study focused on the development of children's control of morphological markers in their writing. The authors examined inflectional and derivational morphological forms within narratives written by 247 3rd and 4th graders. The majority of 3rd and 4th graders used inflectional forms consistently and accurately in their writing. In contrast, fewer students used derived forms, and significantly more 4th than 3rd graders used them accurately. Results indicate that children's control of morphological structures in their writing mirrors that in their speech: Inflectional morphology is largely mastered by age 9 or 10, but skills with derivational morphology continue to develop in middle childhood. The relationships among written morphological accuracy, reading, and spelling were also examined. Written morphological accuracy predicted reading and spelling performance at both grade levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of Practice Conditions and Supplemental Training Method on Cognitive Learning and Interpersonal Skill Generalization

Organizational expenditures for interpersonal-skills training have been rising. However, little is known about the translation of cognitive learning into skilled interpersonal-task performance, or about the mechanisms through which interpersonal skills in one domain generalize to other interpersonal tasks. This study used a 2 x 2 experimental design to examine the effectiveness of neutral versus stressful practice conditions and mastery-versus performance-oriented supplemental training for improving cognitive learning and interpersonal-skill transfer to a novel task. Participants who experienced stressful salary-negotiation practice conditions, followed by mastery-oriented supplemental training, showed greater skill transfer when performing a novel task (i.e., contract negotiations). Results showed that superior cognitive learning (i.e., recall, comprehension, and synthesis) and greater time on task were the mechanisms that supported interpersonal-skill transfer for trainees in the stressful practice/ mastery-oriented training condition when compared with the other experimental groups. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.     

The effects of recent practice on task switching.

Four experiments investigated the effect of recent selective practice on the cost of switching between 2 tasks afforded by letter-digit pairs: alphabet arithmetic and shape comparison. Experiments 1 and 2 found a greater cost associated with switching to the more recently practiced task: evidence that task-set inertia contributes to switching costs. Experiment 3 found this effect to be limited to trials on which a recently trained stimulus followed another such stimulus: a result problematic for all current theories of task-set priming. Experiment 4 showed that the effect of recent practice was eliminated by active preparation for a task switch: It appears that endogenous task-set preparation reduces the effects of task-set inertia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developing a patient education program: overcoming physician resistance

Scientific expertise in the management of diabetes was an important factor in overcoming physician resistance to the education program. Nurses have expertise, and their expertise must be acknowledged for them to be viewed as leaders. Not only are nurses responsible for sharing their expertise with other nurses, it is equally important for them to share their expertise with the physicians, who may appreciate receiving any information that can help them improve their patients' outcomes. The components that are essential for success in pioneering a new program are good listening skills, a willingness to cooperate, self-confidence, scientific knowledge, vigilance, determination, and a clear vision. Patient outcomes will improve when nurses use their scientific knowledge base and leadership skills through patient-centered nursing practice, planned change strategies, and advanced practice nursing.     

Evidence for a multistage model of practice in a sequential movement task.

This study explored the effects of practice when discrete keypress sequences were produced in response to a stimulus. Eighteen students practiced 3 sequences with consistent stimulus-sequence mappings and 2 sequences with varied mappings in a 2,500-trial practice phase. In 2 subsequent transfer phases, the performance effects were assessed of a preceding serial reaction time task and of reversal of 2 consistently practiced stimulus-sequence mappings. The results are explained by the development of 3 types of memory codes (stimulus-response associations, stimulus-response rules, and motor chunks) that are used at 2 independent stages in a serial information-processing stage architecture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From reading to spelling and spelling to reading: Transfer goes both ways.

This study compares the effects of practice spelling and reading specific words on the orthographic representations in memory involved in reading both practiced words and new, unfamiliar words. Typically developing readers in Grade 2 (mean age = 7 years, 7 months) participated in a training study examining whether transfer can occur between reading and spelling following a series of reading and spelling practice sessions. Practice consisted of either repeated reading or repeated spelling of words with shared orthographic rime patterns. A series of mixed analyses of variance was used to examine generalization within skill and transfer across skill. Following practice, word-specific transfer across skill was found. Specifically, children were better able to spell words they had practiced reading and to read words they had practiced spelling. In addition, generalization to new words with practiced rime units was found both within a skill and across skills. However, transfer from spelling to reading was greater than transfer from reading to spelling. Results indicate that the orthographic representations established through practice can be used for both reading and spelling. Subsequently, reading and spelling curricula should be coordinated to benefit children maximally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)