Development's tortoise and hare: Pubertal timing, pubertal tempo, and depressive symptoms in boys and girls.

Although the sequence of pubertal maturation remains consistent across most individuals, the timing and tempo of development fluctuate widely. While past research has largely focused on the sequelae of pubertal timing, a faster tempo of maturation might also present special challenges to children for acclimating to new biological and social milestones. Using latent growth curve modeling, the present study investigated how pubertal tempo and pubertal timing predicted depressive symptoms over a 4-year period in a sample of children recruited from New York City area public schools. Rate of intraindividual change in parent-reported Tanner stages was used as an index of pubertal tempo, and more advanced Tanner development at an earlier chronological age was used as an index of pubertal timing. For girls (N = 138, M = 8.86 years old at Time 1), pubertal timing emerged as the most salient factor, and the tempo at which girls progressed through puberty was not significant. In boys (N = 128, M = 9.61 years old at Time 1), both timing and tempo of development were significant; notably, however, the effects of pubertal tempo were stronger than those of timing. These findings highlight the need to consider multiple sources of individual variability in pubertal development and suggest different pubertal challenges for boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

It's about timing and change: Pubertal transition effects on symptoms of major depression among African American youths.

Effects of early physical maturation and accelerated pubertal changes on symptoms of major depression were examined in 639 African American children. Three rival hypotheses, early timing, off-time, and stressful change, were tested using 2 waves of data (mean ages = 11 and 13 years). The pubertal effect operates differently according to children's gender and age. For girls, early maturation was consistently associated with elevated levels of depressive symptoms. For boys, early maturers manifested elevated levels of depression only at age 11, but these symptoms subsided by age 13. Boys who experienced accelerated pubertal growth over time displayed elevated symptom levels. Results support the early timing hypothesis for girls and the stressful change hypothesis for boys. Time at assessment is critical when examining boys' pubertal transition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Pubertal Development: Longitudinal Data From Finnish Twins at Ages 11 and 14.

To study sources of individual differences in pubertal development, the authors fit a sex-limitation common factor model to data reported, at ages 11 and 14 years, by 1,891 twin pairs on items that comprise the Pubertal Development Scale (PDS; A. C. Petersen, L. Crockett, M. Richards, & A. Boxer, 1988). The model divides variation into a general pubertal factor and item-specific variation and, in addition, decomposes it into constituent sources. In both boys and girls, genetic influences made the largest contribution to variance common to PDS items. Genetic and nonshared environmental factors accounted for variation specific to PDS items in boys, whereas for girls, common environmental influences were added for growth spurt and menarcheal status. For both common and item-specific variation, genetic effects were partially sex specific. Subsidiary analyses found accelerated maturation in both boys and girls who at age 14 were reared in father-absent homes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal adjustment patterns of boys and girls experiencing early, middle, and late sexual intercourse.

This study examined the association between psychosocial development and the timing of first sexual intercourse in a sample of White, rural adolescents. Two theoretical models were tested. The first model, derived from problem behavior theory proposed that earlier timing of first sexual intercourse is associated with longitudinal patterns of transition proneness and poor psychosocial adjustment. The second model, the stage termination model, proposed that early first sexual intercourse interferes with subsequent development, thereby resulting in negative developmental outcomes. Problem behavior theory was supported. For both boys and girls, earlier timing of first sexual intercourse was associated with longitudinal patterns of greater transition proneness and poorer psychosocial adjustment The stage termination model was not supported. No evidence was found suggesting that early timing of first sexual intercourse results in negative psychosocial outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Girls' dating behavior as a function of social context and maturation.

Examined how environmental and physical characteristics contribute to the emergence of adolescent girls' dating behavior. The premise was that one set of individual characteristics, pubertal processes, may have more influence on girls' dating behavior in one context than in another, specifically more in girls who attend dance schools than in those who do not. Seventh to ninth grade girls were seen, 59 who were enrolled in national classical ballet company school and 328 who were not. Body image, dating behavior, career aspirations, pubertal status, and maturational timing were assessed via self-report and maternal report. Dancers were less likely to date than nondancers. A Dance/Nondance Group?×?Pubertal Status interaction was found: Premenarcheal dancers had lower dating scores than postmenarcheal dancers, whereas menarcheal status was not related to dating in nondancers. With regard to body image, a Breast Development?×?Dance/Nondance Group interaction was found, with breast development being negatively related to body image in dancers and unrelated in nondancers. Findings are discussed in terms of interactions between environmental and physical characteristics and the goodness of fit between contextual demands and a girl's particular physical characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the longitudinal relations among family risk factors and childhood externalizing symptoms.

Despite potential sex differences in base rates, predictors, and maintaining processes for children's externalizing behaviors, little prospective research has examined sex differences in the relations between concurrent, proximal family risk factors and children's externalizing behaviors. The current study examined the relations among maternal depressive symptoms, maternal parenting behaviors (i.e., negativity and low warmth), and child externalizing symptoms at 24 months and first grade in a community-based sample of 1,364 children enrolled in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Structural equation modeling revealed that maternal depression and negative parental behaviors were associated with concurrent externalizing behaviors, though maternal depression may be differentially linked to boys' and girls' externalizing problems. The relation between depression and boys' externalizing symptoms was more pronounced at 24 months, and over time, the relation between maternal depression and boys' externalizing symptoms decreased in magnitude, whereas this relation increased among girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

L'échelle de développement pubertaire: équivalence en langue fran?aise du <>.

The Pubertal Development Scale from A. C. Petersen and L. J. Crockett (1985) is a self-report instrument that measures levels of pubertal maturation in adolescence. The main goal of this study was to validate the French version of the instrument on a high school population. The latter was administered on 3 occasions to 255 students during their 1st and 2nd high school years. The measure's internal consistency and the sequence of bodily changes of boys and girls allowed the authors to establish the reliability of the students' perception of their pubertal development. Like J. M. Tanner (1962) and Petersen et al. (1985, 1988), 5 categories identifying different pubertal status were labeled. Results show satisfactory reliability from such a pubertal classification system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The parent–adolescent relationship at puberty: Hispanic ethnicity and parent alcoholism as moderators.

This study tested Hispanic ethnicity and parent alcoholism as moderators of pubertal status effects on the parent-child relationship in a community sample of 421 boys and girls 11.5-16.5 years old. Ethnicity was a significant moderator: The direction of the puberty effect on parent support and parent-adolescent conflict differed for Hispanic (primarily Mexican American) and non-Hispanic White boys. Parent alcoholism did not moderate the effect of puberty, but there was more conflict and less support between children of alcoholics and their parents than between controls and their parents. Puberty effects on the parent-adolescent relationship were also found above and beyond the effects of chronological age. Future directions for research in this area are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elevated social anxiety among early maturing girls.

Adolescence is a key period in terms of the development of anxiety psychopathology. An emerging literature suggests that early pubertal maturation is associated with enhanced vulnerability for anxiety symptomatology, although few studies have examined this association with regard to social anxiety. Accordingly, the current study was designed to further elucidate the relation between pubertal timing and social anxiety, with a focus on clarifying the role of gender. Participants were 138 adolescents (ages 12–17 years) recruited from the general community. Level of social anxiety was examined as a function of gender and within-sample pubertal timing. As expected, early maturing girls evidenced significantly higher social anxiety, compared with on-time girls and early maturing boys, and no other differences were found as a function of gender or developmental timing. Findings and future directions are discussed in terms of forwarding developmentally sensitive models of social anxiety etiology and prevention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of puberty on family relations: Effects of pubertal status and pubertal timing.

This investigation examines the impact of pubertal status and pubertal timing, independent of each other and of chronological age, on the family relationships of adolescent boys and girls. The sample is composed of 204 families with a firstborn child between the ages of 10 and 15. Measures included adolescent and parental reports of closeness, conflict, and autonomy as well as assessments of each adolescent's pubertal status and pubertal timing (early, on time, or late maturing). Findings indicate that (a) pubertal maturation is associated with increased emotional distance between youngsters and their parents; (b) pubertal maturation (among girls) and early pubertal maturation (among boys) increase conflict between adolescents and their mothers, but not necessarily fathers; and (c) pubertal maturation, and especially late maturation, may be accompanied by increased behavioral autonomy for the adolescent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A risk model for disordered eating in late elementary school boys.

The authors tested the following risk model for disordered eating in late elementary school-age boys: Pubertal status is associated with increases in negative urgency, that is, the tendency to act rashly when distressed; high levels of negative urgency then influence binge eating through psychosocial learning; and binge eating influences purging. A sample of 908 fifth-grade boys completed questionnaire measures of puberty, negative urgency, dieting/thinness and eating expectancies, and eating pathology. Eating disorder symptoms were present in these young boys: 10% reported binge eating and 4.2% reported purging through self-induced vomiting. Each hypothesis in the risk model was supported. Boys this young do in fact engage in the maladaptive behaviors of binge eating and purging; it is crucial to develop explanatory risk models for this group. To this end, it appears that characteristics of boys, including their pubertal status, personalities, and psychosocial learning, help identify boys at risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between hormone levels and observational measures of aggressive behavior of young adolescents in family interactions.

Relations between hormone levels and aggressive behavior of adolescents in family interactions were examined in 30 boys and 30 girls, 9 to 14 years of age. The adolescents represented all five stages of pubertal development (Tanner criteria). Circulating levels of gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone), gonadal steroids (testosterone and estradiol), adrenal androgens (dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, and androstenedione), and testosterone-estradiol binding globulin were assessed. These hormones are responsible for growth and sexual development during puberty and correlate with Tanner stage. The behavioral measures described the adolescents' expressions of anger and attempts to control or defy their parents and were based on videotaped family interactions during problem-solving tasks. On the basis of multiple regression analyses, higher estradiol and androstenedione levels were associated with higher degrees of aggressive behaviors for girls. Findings were sparse for boys. Findings are discussed in terms of (a) effects of degree of stability of hormone levels on detection of hormone-behavior relations, (b) organizing and activating influences of hormones on behavior, and (c) other mechanisms possibly underlying the relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal effects of adolescent girls' pubertal development, perceptions of pubertal timing, and parental relations on eating problems.

This study examines how young adolescent girls' pubertal development and perceptions of pubertal timing as well as their subjective experiences with their parents relate to the emergence of eating problems during later adolescence. The sample consisted of 240 White girls from 2 suburban communities near a large midwestern city. They were studied originally when they were in the 5th to 9th grades and again 2 years later (N?=?177). They reported their daily experiences according to the Experience Sampling Method. Results indicate that adolescent girls' positive relationships with both parents relate to healthier eating scores, both concurrently and longitudinally. Interactions of the pubertal and the experience with parents variables appear to be important for understanding eating problems in early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

GH and GnRH analog treatment in children who enter puberty at short stature

It is well known that height at the onset of puberty is closely related to final height. To improve final height of short children who enter puberty at short stature, twenty-one short boys and six short girls were treated with a combination of GH and GnRH analog. The boys started the combination treatment at a mean age of 12.0 years when their mean height was 128.5 cm (-2.74 SD) and the girls at a mean age of 10.68 years when their mean height was 126.4 cm (-2.23 SD). The boys discontinued GnRH at a mean age of 16.88 years after a mean treatment period of 4.89 years when their height was 153.7 cm (-2.75 SD), and the girls at a mean age of 13.89 years after a mean treatment period of 3.20 years when their height was 143.3 cm (-1.94 SD). Bone age maturation significantly decelerated during the combination treatment. Bone age rarely exceeded 14 years in boys and did not exceed 13 years in girls. Bone age maturation during combination treatment decelerated after bone age 12 years in boys and 10.5 years in girls. On average, bone age matured at a mean rate of 0.48 years a year in boys and 0.56 years a year in girls during the combination treatment. During the combination treatment, height velocity did not decelerate rapidly and remained at 3-5 cm/year for a longer duration because of the bone age deceleration, although a definite pubertal growth spurt was not observed. As a consequence, the mean projected height SDS for bone age increased 1.50 (+/- 0.76) SD in boys and 1.24 (+/- 0.49) SD during the combination treatment. Although most of the patients have not yet reached their final height, combined GnRH analog and GH treatment should increase the pubertal height gain and the adult height in short children who enter puberty early for height, when the post-GST growth is taken into account. The combination treatment seems more effective in boys than in girls. This improvement is attributed to the lengthening of the treatment period by slower bone maturation and maintained growth velocity.     

Correlation of the production of gonadotropic and sex hormones in boys and girls during sex maturation

There is an early period of puberty in boys at the age of 10 to 13, accompanied by an increase in the level of follicle stimulating hormone and a low secretion of luteinizing hormone and testosterone, with no secondary sexual signs. The beginning of an increase in the luteinizing hormone and testosterone concentration in boys coincides with the development of secondary sexual signs. The stabilization of the level of luteinizing hormone takes place in boys already at the 2nd degree of the sexual development. The secretion of luteinizing hormone at this point corresponds already to the normal level in adult men. The level of testosterone in the blood continues to increase and does not reach its definitive level until after the age of 17, or at the 5th degree of sexual development. Like in boys, the increase of the follicle stimulating hormone in girls precedes the increase of the luteinizing hormone secretion. The beginning of the increase in the follicle stimulating hormone coincides with an increase in the level of estrogens and testosterone in the blood, and with the appearance of secondary signs of sexual maturation. The increase of the luteinizing hormone secretion takes place later in girls than in boys and is accompanied by a new and significant increase in the level of estrogens in the blood. At the 2nd degree of sexual development, the level of testosterone in the blood of girls is substantially higher than at the other stages.     

The role of estrogen in bone growth and maturation during childhood and adolescence

Twenty years ago it was believed that pubertal growth was stimulated by testicular androgen in boys and by adrenal androgen in girls. Estrogen, which was used to inhibit growth in excessively tall girls, was not thought to have growth-promoting effects. We hypothesized that estrogen has a biphasic effect on epiphyseal growth, with maximal stimulation at low levels. We showed that the administration of low doses of estrogen, corresponding to a serum estradiol level of about 4 pg/ml (15 pmol/l) caused more than a 60% increase over the prepubertal growth rate in both boys and girls. To test the hypothesis that estrogen is the principal mediator of the pubertal growth spurt in boys, we administered the aromatase inhibitor, testolactone, to boys with familial male-limited precocious puberty. Testolactone produced near normalization of both growth velocity and bone maturation, despite levels of serum testosterone that remained within the adult male range. The observation that low levels of estrogen stimulate growth and bone maturation suggested that estrogen might explain the more rapid epiphyseal maturation of prepubertal girls compared to boys. To determine whether prepubertal girls have higher estrogen levels than prepubertal boys, we developed an ultrasensitive recombinant cell bioassay for estrogen with a sensitivity of 0.02 pg/ml (0.07 pmol/l) estradiol equivalents. Prepubertal girls had approximately eight-fold higher levels of serum estradiol than did prepubertal boys (0.6 +/- 0.6 pg/ml (SD) (2.2 +/- 2.2 pmol/l) vs 0.08 +/- 0.2 pg/ml (0.29 +/- 0.73 pmol/l), P < 0.05). We concluded that the pubertal growth spurt of both sexes is driven primarily by estrogen, and that the more rapid epiphyseal maturation of prepubertal girls (vs boys) may be explained by their higher estradiol levels.     

Gender differences in the development and adult outcome of co-occurring depression and delinquency in adolescence.

Using a dual trajectory modeling approach, we examined co-occurring trajectories of depression and delinquency from age 11 to age 18 and their relation to adult outcome six years later in a community sample of 1423 (674 boys) adolescents. We also examined the effects of childhood externalizing, internalizing, and social problems on trajectory membership for depression and delinquency. The results showed that although more girls than boys were likely to follow high-level, co-occurring trajectories on depression and delinquency, the adult outcome of adolescents following high-level trajectories on both domains was poorer for boys than for girls. However, the combination of decreasing depression symptoms and increasing delinquency symptoms across adolescence was related with poorer adult outcomes for girls compared to boys. Finally, whereas boys' high-level co-occurring trajectory of depression and delinquency was predicted by childhood aggression, girls' equivalent trajectory was predicted by childhood depression and delinquency. The findings support the “gender paradox” effect (Loeber & Keenan, 1994) stating that in disorders with an unequal gender ratio, members of the gender with the lower prevalence rate tend to be more seriously affected in terms of comorbidity and poor outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment.

The role of children's perceptions and appraisals in the impact of marital conflict was examined for 51 9- to 12-yr-olds from intact families. Gender differences were found in the cognitions and coping processes related to marital conflict and child adjustment. Appraisals of coping efficacy and the threat posed by marital conflict predicted adjustment in boys, whereas self-blame was linked with internalizing problems for girls. The appraised destructiveness of conflict was significantly related to perceived threat in boys and self-blame in girls. Boys appeared more attuned or, alternatively, less shielded from marital conflict, as reflected by the higher correlations with mothers' reports of marital conflict for boys than for girls. The significance of boys' appraisals to adjustment was suggested by the fact that boys' perceptions were better predictors of adjustment outcomes than were mothers' reports. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

Early hormones have been hypothesized to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviors. This study examined hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) aged 2.5–12 yrs (24 girls, 19 boys) and their relatives (16 girls, 25 boys). CAH girls preferred boys' toys and activities. They also had greater preference for boy playmates than controls, but this was largely attributable to 4 girls. CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls. Activity and playmate preferences were not related. It was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences; sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences; activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation; and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initiation of substance use in early adolescence: The roles of pubertal timing and emotional distress.

Tested 2 hypotheses regarding the effects of pubertal timing on substance use in a prospective study of 221 young adolescents (aged 10.67–14.67 yrs at 1st assessment). A maturational-deviance hypothesis predicted that early-maturing girls and late-maturing boys would experience heightened emotional distress, which in turn would influence initiation and use of substances. Alternatively, an early-maturation hypothesis predicted that early-maturing girls would engage in more substance use than all other groups, independent of emotional distress. Early-maturing Ss reported more substance use within 1 yr. Ss experiencing elevated levels of negative affect also reported greater substance use within the next year. However, pubertal timing was not related to emotional distress. Results support the early-maturation hypothesis for girls and suggest its extension to boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)