Recipient-provider agreement on enacted support, perceived support, and provider personality.

This study examined agreement between recipients and providers about social support and personality. One hundred daughter caregivers of a parent with Alzheimer's disease and each caregiver's most important support provider independently reported supportive behaviors provided to caregivers, the perceived supportiveness of the provider, and providers' personality traits. For all indices, agreement was higher for enacted support than for perceived support and personality, which were similar to each other for some, but not all, indices of agreement. These findings support the validity of measures of enacted and perceived support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of personality characteristics to the relationship between social support and perceived physical health.

Employed structural equation modeling to derive and test a model of the relationships between personality characteristics, social network size, the perceived availability of support, socially supportive behaviors, and perceived physical health with 182 adults (aged 30–90 yrs). Ss completed a telephone interview and a questionnaire that included a version of the Norbeck Social Support Questionnaire and 3 subscales from the Personality Research Form. Significant paths indicated that Ss who perceived themselves as affiliative and as help seekers and help givers reported larger social networks, received more socially supportive behaviors, and perceived more available support. Also, the more support Ss perceived to be available to them, the more positively they rated their perceived physical health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processes in perceived social support.

This article describes 2 studies testing hypotheses that perceived social support operates in part as a cognitive personality construct. Both studies found that perceived support manifested a pattern of correlations more similar to cognitive variables than did support received from the environment and that the relation between perceived support and psychological distress was reduced substantially when the cognitive personality variables were controlled statistically. Study 2 also tested hypotheses generated from schema theory that perceived support would be related to the interpretation and recall of novel supportive behaviors. As predicted, low-perceived-support students interpreted novel supportive behaviors more negatively than high-support students and remembered a lower proportion of behaviors perceived as helpful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship-specific and global perceptions of social support: Associations with well-being and attachment.

Is one's global sense of social support largely a summation of the support perceived to exist within current social relationships, or is it a traitlike construct independent of current support levels? To address this issue, 183 college students completed measures of global support, support from four different social domains, attachment style, and several measures of well-being. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that for two well-being measures (global and social loneliness), both global and domain support displayed significant unique associations; for emotional loneliness, only domain support had a significant unique influence. For the well-being measure reflecting generalized negative affect, only global support displayed such a unique association. Thus, global and domain support appear to be, to a considerable degree, independent constructs, each with its own sphere of influence in affecting well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived social support, self-efficacy, and adjustment to abortion.

Prior to their having a 1st trimester abortion, women's perceptions of social support from their partner, family, and friends and self-efficacy for coping were assessed. Depression, mood, physical complaints, and anticipation of negative consequences were measured after the 30-min recovery period. As predicted, perceived social support enhanced adjustment indirectly through its effects on self-efficacy. Women who perceived high support from their family, friends, and partners had higher self-efficacy for coping. Higher self-efficacy, in turn, predicted better adjustment on the psychological measures but not on the physical complaint measure. No direct path between social support and adjustment was observed. In addition, women who told close others of their abortion but perceived them as less than completely supportive had poorer postabortion psychological adjustment than either women who did not tell or women who told and perceived complete support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond Medical Risk: Investigating the Psychological Factors Underlying Women's Perceptions of Susceptibility to Breast Cancer, Heart Disease, and Osteoporosis.

The relationships of epidemiological (objective) risk indices, perceived disease characteristics, and cognitive heuristics to women's perceived susceptibility to breast cancer, heart disease, and osteoporosis in a community sample of 312 women ages 40-86 were examined. Epidemiological indices accounted for a small to moderate proportion of the variance in perceived susceptibility. Psychological factors (perceived similarity to women who contract the target disease and perceived disease prevalence) predicted perceived susceptibility above and beyond medical risk factors. Opposite to actual risk, age correlated negatively with perceived susceptibility to all 3 diseases. Exploratory analyses suggested that perceived similarity, perceived prevalence, and absent/exempt beliefs might mediate this relationship. Confirmatory factor analyses verified that measures of absolute and direct comparative risk assess the same underlying construct of perceived susceptibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sphere-specific measures of perceived control.

Proposes that individual differences in perceived control be partitioned into components associated with 3 primary spheres of behavior: (a) personal efficacy (control over the nonsocial environment as in personal achievement), (b) interpersonal control (control over other people in dyads and groups), and (c) sociopolitical control (control over social and political events and institutions). Assessment instruments are presented for measuring perceived control in each of these 3 spheres. Using data from 87 undergraduates, a 3-factor structural model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis, and the results are strongly supportive. The scales have impressive convergent and discriminant validity in relation to other individual difference measures. Evidence from several laboratory and field studies by the author and colleagues (e.g., see record 1981-01340-001) is reviewed to support the predictive validity of the 3 scales. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Loneliness, attachment, and the perception and use of social support in university students.

This study examined factors related to family, social, and romantic loneliness in 173 undergraduate students (66 males, 107 females). Participants completed measures of attachment style, perceived availability of social support, use of social support coping, and loneliness. Results indicated that participants with greater attachment security reported lower levels of all types of loneliness compared to those with less attachment security, and this was partially mediated by perceived social support but not the use of social support coping. When examining underlying attachment constructs, a more positive model of others was related to less family and social loneliness, and these associations were mediated by greater perceived social support. Model of others also was associated with less romantic loneliness and model of self was associated with less loneliness in all domains, and these relations were partially mediated by perceived social support. Findings are discussed with respect to possible interventions to increase students' perceptions of available social support and to decrease overall loneliness levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facets of support related to well-being: Quantitative social isolation and perceived family support in a sample of elderly women.

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent and interactive relationships of measures of network embeddedness and perceived social support with mental and physical health measures from responses of a sample of 271 community-dwelling elderly women. Quantitative social isolation was measured as the co-occurrence of low network embeddedness with family and with friends. There was a threshold effect such that quantitatively isolated participants had poorer psychological well-being and functional health than did nonisolated participants. This effect was independent of perceived support levels. The pattern was different for perceived social support. Elderly women with low perceived family support had poorer psychological well-being regardless of perceived support from friends or network embeddedness. Implications are discussed for several unanswered questions in the social support literature, including possible interventions for the quantitatively isolated and for those with low levels of perceived support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social supports: The consequences of psychologizing: A commentary.

Argues that the transformation of the concept of social support from a sociological view in which embeddedness in social structure is central to reconceptualization of specific relationships has led the field into a conceptual morass that signals the absence of a unitary knowledge area. Studies on social supports, conducted by the present author between 1978 and 1986, are discussed in order to examine the task that confronts the current social support research community with the emphasis on specifying and detailing socially supportive relationships. The term social support has become overly inclusive and needs to be disaggregated into a number of component parts before meaningful conceptual progress is possible. Detailed studies of processes are required before making the all-too-easy generalization that beneficial social supports are critical. The level of knowledge currently available precludes meaningful social policy usage. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hostility, social support, and perceptions of work.

The aim of this study was to determine whether hostility and perceived availability of social support are related to perceptions of the work environment. The W. W. Cook and D. M. Medley (1954) Hostility (Ho) scale; the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (S. Cohen, R. Mermelstein, T. Kamarzk, & H. Hoberman, 1985); and measures of collegiality, time pressure, and job dissatisfaction were completed by 204 attorneys (159 men and 45 women). After controlling for age, gender, and other job characteristics, high Ho scores were related to lower perceived supportive collegiality at work. Low perceived availability of social support was related to greater job dissatisfaction. Neither hostility nor social support was associated with perceptions of time pressure at work. These findings suggest that hostility and availability of social support may be an important pathway linking certain job characteristics to cardiovascular disease and other illnesses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creating and undermining social support in communal relationships: The role of compassionate and self-image goals.

In 2 studies, the authors examined whether relationship goals predict change in social support and trust over time. In Study 1, a group of 199 college freshmen completed pretest and posttest measures of social support and interpersonal trust and completed 10 weekly reports of friendship goals and relationship experiences. Average compassionate goals predicted closeness, clear and connected feelings, and increased social support and trust over the semester; self-image goals attenuated these effects. Average self-image goals predicted conflict, loneliness, and afraid and confused feelings; compassionate goals attenuated these effects. Changes in weekly goals predicted changes in goal-related affect, closeness, loneliness, conflict, and beliefs about mutual and individualistic caring. In Study 2, a group of 65 roommate pairs completed 21 daily reports of their goals for their roommate relationship. Actors' average compassionate and self-image goals interacted to predict changes over 3 weeks in partners' reports of social support received from and given to actors; support that partners gave to actors, in turn, predicted changes in actors' perceived available support, indicating that people with compassionate goals create a supportive environment for themselves and others, but only if they do not have self-image goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social connections and suicidal thoughts and behavior.

Disrupted social connectedness is associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviors among individuals with substance use disorders (SUDs). The current study sought to further characterize this relationship by examining several indices of social connectedness—(a) living alone, (b) perceived social support, (c) interpersonal conflict, and (d) belongingness. Participants (n = 814) were recruited from 4 residential substance-use treatment programs and completed self-report measures of social connectedness as well as whether they had ever thought about or attempted suicide. Multivariate results indicated that interpersonal conflict and belongingness were significant predictors of a history of suicidal ideation, and that belongingness, perceived social support, and living alone were significant predictors of suicide attempt. These results indicate the most consistent support for the relationship between suicidality and thwarted belongingness, and also support the clinical utility of assessing whether individuals live alone. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulating the type and source of social support: An experimental investigation.

Investigated whether various types of support (emotional, instrumental, informational, and appraisal) are distinguishable from each other and whether the type and/or source of support affects stress–outcome relationships in 2 studies with 232 undergraduates. It was found that the type of support, but not its source, was perceived by Ss as being important for predicting outcome and that Ss in the informational condition predicted the most positive outcome. However, since Ss perceived that informational support was also emotional, it is concluded that the perceived combination of informational and emotional support was the most effective in buffering a negative outcome of stress. Implications for the construct validity of social support are discussed. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do obese women have poorer social relationships than nonobese women? Reports by self, friends, and coworkers

Both theory and research suggest that obese women may have relatively poor social relationships even if their self-reports about their relationships do not differ from the reports of nonobese women. Seventy-seven obese and 78 nonobese women completed self-report measures of social anxiety, social self-esteem, social competence, social network size, and perceived social support from friends and family. Friends and coworkers also rated these women on the same measures. The self-reports of obese and nonobese women did not differ significantly on any of these social measures, and ratings from friends and coworkers of obese women were not different from ratings of nonobese women by friends and coworkers. These results suggest that obese women may be able to overcome prejudice against obese people in their relationships with others.     

Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers.

Adolescents' supportive relationships with parents, teachers, and peers were examined in relation to motivation at school (school- and class-related interest, academic goal orientations, and social goal pursuit). On the basis of 167 sixth-grade students, relations of perceived support from parents, teachers, and peers to student motivation differed depending on the source of support and motivational outcome: Peer support was a positive predictor of prosocial goal pursuit, teacher support was a positive predictor of both types of interest and of social responsibility goal pursuit, and parent support was a positive predictor of school-related interest and goal orientations. Perceived support from parents and peers also was related to interest in school indirectly by way of negative relations with emotional distress. Pursuit of social responsibility goals and school- and class-related interest in 6th grade partly explained positive relations between social support in 6th grade and classroom grades 1 year later. Continued research on the social origins of classroom motivation in early adolescence is needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Critical levels of perceived social support associated with student adjustment.

Investigated the relationships among perceived social support and academic, behavioral, and social indicators for 1,711 students in Grades 3 through 12. Data were collected with the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale, the Social Skills Rating System, the Student Self-Concept Scale, and the Behavior Assessment System for Children. Results show significant, positive relationships among perceived social support and a variety of positive indicators (e.g., social skills, self-concept, and adaptive skills). In addition, significant, negative relationships among perceived social support and a variety of problematic behavioral indicators (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behaviors) were found. Students with low perceived support obtained significantly higher scores on problematic behavior indicators and significantly lower scores on positive behavior indicators than students with average or high perceived support. Only student-rated social skills and self-concept were significantly higher for the high vs the average level of perceived support. These results are followed by a discussion of the importance of varying levels (low, average, high) of perceived social support in students' lives. Implications of the findings of this study for school psychologists are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensatory patterns of support among children's peer relationships: A test using school friends, nonschool friends, and siblings.

Examined the extent to which isolated and aggressive 6th graders compensate for unsatisfying school friendships by deriving support from siblings and nonschool friends and whether this support protects such children from poor socioemotional outcomes. Results were as follows: (1) When compared with average and aggressive children, isolated children perceived their school friendships as least supportive and their favorite sibling relationships as most supportive; (2) isolated, aggressive, and average children did not differ in their perceptions of support from nonschool friends; and (3) high support from a favorite sibling was associated with better adjustment among isolated children on select outcomes. Despite the somewhat ameliorating role of siblings for isolated children, isolated children with high sibling support remained less well adjusted than did average children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the relationship between perceived social support and student adjustment during early adolescence.

The current study is an investigation of early adolescents' perceptions of social support from parents, teachers, classmates, and close friends, and how that support is related to measures of students' adjustment on a range of behavioral indices. Data were collected on a sample of 246 students in Grades 6 through 8 using the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS), and the Parent Rating Scale of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC-PRS). Analyses using the social support subscale scores (Parent, Teacher, Classmate, and Close Friend) replicated past research in finding gender differences on mean levels of perceived social support, with girls perceiving higher levels of classmate and close friend support than boys. In addition, girls reported significantly more support from close friends than any other source, whereas boys reported significantly less support from classmates than any other source. Finally, results demonstrated gender differences in the relationship between social support and several indices of student adjustment, and provided evidence for the importance of considering gender differences in planning future research related to social support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)