基于回归分析和遗传算法的BGA焊点功率载荷热应力分析与优化

建立了球栅阵列BGA（Ball Grid Array）焊点有限元分析模型,选取焊点高度、焊点最大径向尺寸、上焊盘直径和下焊盘直径作为设计变量,以焊点应力作为目标值,采用响应曲面法设计了29组不同水平组合的焊点模型并建模进行仿真计算,建立了焊点应力与结构参数的回归方程,基于回归方程结合遗传算法对焊点结构参数进行了优化,获得了焊点应力最小的结构参数最优水平组合.结果表明：对于无铅焊料SAC387,焊点应力随焊点的高度增加而减小,随最大径向尺寸的减小而减小;应力最小的焊点水平组合为：焊点高度0.38mm、最大径向尺寸0.42mm、上焊盘直径0.34mm和下焊盘直径0.35mm;对最优水平组合仿真验证表明优化后焊点最大应力下降了4.66MPa,实现了BGA焊点的结构优化.     

基于再流焊冷却过程应力分析的板极组件BGA焊点参数优化

建立了板级组件BGA（Ball Grid Array）焊点有限元分析模型,对BGA焊点进行了再流焊冷却过程应力仿真分析,设计并完成了验证性实验以验证仿真分析方法的有效性,分析了焊点结构参数和材料变化对焊点再流焊冷却过程应力应变的影响,采用响应面法建立了焊点应力与结构参数的回归方程,结合遗传算法对焊点结构参数进行了优化.结果表明：实验结果证明了仿真分析的有效性;焊点应力随着焊点高度的增加而增大,随着焊点直径的增加而减小;最优焊点结构参数水平组合为：焊点高度0.44mm、焊点直径0.65mm、焊盘直径0.52mm和焊点间距1.10mm;对该最优焊点仿真验证表明最大应力下降了0.1101MPa.     

微尺度BGA焊点拉伸过程有限元仿真分析

建立了微尺度 BGA焊点拉伸有限元分析模型,研究了拉伸加载条件下焊点高度、直径和焊盘直径对焊点拉伸应力应变的影响。结果表明：拉伸条件下,微尺度 BGA焊点顶端和底端的应力应变要大于焊点中间部分,焊点顶部和底部位置为高应力应变区域;在只单一改变焊点高度、直径和焊盘直径其中之一的前提下,随着焊点高度、直径和焊盘直径的增加,微尺度BGA焊点内的最大应力应变均相应减小;在置信度为90%的情况下,焊点直径对拉伸应力影响最大,其次是焊盘直径,最后是焊点高度;焊点直径对焊点拉伸应力具有显著影响,焊盘直径和焊点高度对焊点拉伸应力影响不显著。     

随机振动加载条件下QFN焊点的优化设计

采用基于最小能量原理和有限元数值分析方法的Surface Evolver软件，建立了四方扁平无引脚器件（QFN：Quad Flat No-lead）焊点三维形态预测模型；选取焊盘长度、焊盘宽度、焊料体积和间隙高度作为四个关键因素，采用水平正交表设计了9种不同的QFN焊点工艺参数水平组合，建立了这9种焊点的三维形态预测模型，得到了不同工艺参数水平组合下的QFN焊点形态；分析在随机振动加载条件下，焊盘长度、焊盘宽度、焊料体积和间隙高度四个工艺参数的改变对QFN焊点的应力应变的影响；通过对因子趋势图分析表明：在随机振动加栽下焊盘长度和焊盘宽度对焊点应力应变影响较大，间隙高度和焊料体积对应力应变影响较小；使QFN焊点应变值最小的参数细合为：焊盘长度为0．8mm；焊盘宽度为0．37mm；间隙高度为0．15mm；焊料体积为0.014mm^3。     

三维堆叠封装TSV互连结构热扭耦合应力分析与优化

建立了三维硅通孔(TSV)芯片垂直堆叠封装结构有限元分析模型,对模型在热扭耦合加载下进行了仿真分析;分析了TSV材料参数与结构参数对TSV互连结构热扭耦合应力的影响;采用了响应面与模拟退火算法对在热扭耦合加载下TSV互连结构参数进行优化设计。结果表明：TSV互连结构最大热扭耦合应力应变位于铜柱与微凸点接触面外侧;微凸点材料为SAC387时,TSV互连结构热扭耦合应力最大,该应力随SiO₂层厚度的增大而增大,随铜柱直径的增大而先增大后减小,随铜柱高度的增大而减小;最优参数水平组合为铜柱直径50μm、铜柱高度85μm、SiO₂层厚度3μm,优化后的最大热扭耦合应力下降了5.3%。     

基于随机振动过程应力分析的BGA焊点结构优化

建立了板级BGA(Ball Grid Array)焊点有限元分析模型，选取芯片高度、焊点直径、焊点高度、焊点间距作为设计变量，以焊点应力作为响应目标，分别采用田口正交及曲面响应法设计了25组不同水平组合的焊点模型并进行仿真计算，通过数理统计分析及回归分析对焊点结构参数进行了优化，获得了焊点应力最小结构参数最优水平组合.结果表明：在相同条件下，曲面响应优化的结果优于田口正交的结果；应力最小的焊点水平组合为焊点直径0.32 mm，焊点高度0.20 mm，焊点间距0.36 mm；最优水平组合等效应力值为0.3915 MPa，降低了0.65 MPa，实现了BGA焊点结构参数的优化.     

晶圆级芯片尺寸封装柔性焊点热循环可靠性

建立了晶圆级芯片尺寸封装(WLCSP)柔性无铅焊点三维有限元分析模型,基于该模型对柔性无铅焊点热循环等效应力应变进行了分析,并预测了焊点可靠性寿命。选取第一柔性层厚度、第二柔性层厚度、上焊盘直径和下焊盘直径作为关键因素,采用L16(45)正交设计了16种不同水平组合的柔性无铅焊点,获取了这些焊点的热循环等效应力数据,对等效应力数据进行了极差分析和方差分析。结果表明:在热循环加载条件下,采用柔性层结构方式能有效降低焊点内的等效应力应变;在置信度为90%的情况下,下焊盘直径和第一柔性层厚度对柔性焊点等效应力有显著影响。各因素对焊点等效应力的影响排序为下焊盘直径影响最大,其次是第一柔性层厚度,再次是第二柔性层厚度,最后是上焊盘直径。     

柔性凸点热-结构耦合应力应变有限元分析

建立了芯片尺寸封装焊点的柔性凸点三维有限元分析(FEA)模型,对该模型进行了热-结构耦合有限元分析,研究了热-结构耦合条件下柔性凸点温度场和应力应变的分布规律,对比了有无柔性层结构的凸点内应力应变的大小,分析了柔性层厚度、上下焊盘直径对柔性凸点应力应变的影响。结果表明:柔性层结构有效降低了凸点内的应力应变;随着柔性层厚度的增加,凸点内最大应力应变减小;随上焊盘和下焊盘直径的增加,凸点内最大应力应变的变化无明显规律。     

LGA焊点形态对焊点寿命影响的有限元分析

通过Surface Evolver软件对LGA焊点进行了三维形态预测,利用有限元数值模拟对LGA焊点在热循环条件下寿命进行了分析。研究了热循环条件下LGA焊点的应力应变分布规律,随着焊点远离元件的中心位置焊点所受到的等效应力、等效应变和塑性应变能密度逐渐增大,从而得出处于外面拐角的焊点最先发生失效的结论。基于塑性应变范围和Coffin-Manson公式计算了焊点热疲劳寿命;找出了LGA焊点形态对焊点寿命的影响规律,模板厚度一定时PCB焊盘尺寸小于上焊盘时LGA焊点的热疲劳寿命与PCB焊盘尺寸成正比,大于上焊盘时成反比,大约相等时焊点寿命最大。当PCB焊盘和模板开孔尺寸固定时,通过增大模板厚度来增加焊料体积在一定程度上可提高LGA焊点的热疲劳寿命,但是模板厚度增大到一定值时LGA焊点寿命会逐渐降低。     

不同结构参数下PBGA焊点的随机振动分析

利用ABAQUS有限元分析软件,对不同结构参数下PBGA焊点的随机振动响应进行了分析。结果表明:在随机振动载荷作用下,PBGA封装焊点的最大应力位于焊点阵列的拐角处,而且在靠近PCB板的一侧;焊点的最大应力值与焊点高度成正比,与焊点直径和焊点间距成反比;当焊点直径为0.66 mm、高度为0.6 mm、间距为1.27 mm时,焊点的最大应力达到最大值842.4 MPa。     

Corrosion behavior of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu lead-free solder joints

The aim of this study is to evaluate the corrosion behavior of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu (SAC305) lead-free solder joint using salt spray test. The presence of Cu pad accelerates the dissolution of Sn from solder joints into corrosive medium because of galvanic corrosion mechanism. So, the solder joint was easily corroded in corrosive environment than SAC305 solder bar. During salt spray test, pitting corrosion begin from the solidification cracks in the solder joints, which will lead to a decrease of the reliability of solder joints and shorten the life of electronic devices.     

The Role of Pd in Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Interconnect Mechanical Shock Performance

The mechanical stability of solder joints with Pd added to Sn-Ag-Cu alloy with different aging conditions was investigated in a high-G level shock environment. A test vehicle with three different strain and shock level conditions in one board was used to identify the joint stability and failure modes. The results revealed that Pd provided stability at the package-side interface with an overall shock performance improvement of over 65% compared with the Sn-Ag-Cu alloy without Pd. A dependency on the pad structure was also identified. However, the strengthening mechanism was only observed in the non-solder mask defined (NSMD) pad design, whereas the solder mask defined (SMD) pad design boards showed no improvement in shock performance with Pd-added solders. The effects of Sn grain orientation on shock performance, interconnect stability, and crack propagation path with and without Pd are discussed. The SAC305 + Pd solder joints showed more grain refinements, recrystallization, and especially mechanical twin deformation during the shock test, which provides a partial explanation for the ability of SAC305 + Pd to absorb more shock-induced energy through active deformation compared with SAC305.     

Solder joint reliability and characteristics of deformation and crack growth of Sn-Ag-Cu versus eutectic Sn-Pb on a WLP in a thermal cycling test

Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) is now recognized as the standard lead free solder alloy for packaging interconnect in the electronics industry. This paper analyzes the performance of both SAC and eutectic Sn-Pb solder alloys on Kulicke & Soffa's (K&S') Ultra CSP/spl reg/ wafer level package (WLP) at a thermal cycling (TC) test. The Ultra CSP standard Al/Ni-V/Cu under bump metallurgy (UBM) system was used to analyze if this UBM system with SAC solder would produce acceptable reliability in the TC test. In this study, two TC tests were performed. In the first test, two parts were removed from the TC chamber about every 200 cycles to investigate the characteristics of deformation and crack growth in the SAC and eutectic Sn-Pb Ultra CSP solder joints during TC testing. These TC test results showed that both the SAC and eutectic Sn-Pb Ultra CSPs exhibited normal solder joint fatigue failures during the testing. The SAC Ultra CSP had an equal or 18% higher Weibull life than the eutectic Sn-Pb one. Based on these results it was concluded that the SAC Ultra CSP with the Al/Ni-V/Cu UBM system produces acceptable solder joint reliability in a TC test. The results also revealed that the deformation and crack growth characteristics of the SAC and eutectic Sn-Pb Ultra CSP solder joints were significantly different. The eutectic Sn-Pb solder joints showed significant inelastic shear deformation during the TC testing while the SAC solder joints did not display significant inelastic deformation even at the high temperature regime of the TC test.     

板级结构参数对CSP器件焊点可靠性的影响

研究了几何因素和基板材料对无铅焊点可靠性的影响，建立了CSP封装元件的有限元模型。进行了温度循环测试，分析了焊点的应力应变情况。结果表明：基板厚度，焊点高度与焊盘直径的变化对焊点寿命有着不同的影响趋势。同时比较了FR4，Al2O3，PI材料基板与无铅焊点互连的情况，最终得出PI基板是最有利于封装器件使用的基板材料。但是由于其加工成本较高等方面的原因一般只用于高可靠性要求的军事产品领域。     

Development of numerical algorithm to guide solder joint structure and component structural design during manufacturing

In order to improve the production technology of the lead-free BGA (Ball Grid Array) assembly, a numerical method is developed to predict the yield of the soldering process based on calculated stand-off stiffness curves and component warpage. The stand-off stiffness curve which reflects the relationship of the force and height of solder joints is obtained by solving the differential equations of the solder joint shapes of BGA solder joints using the Runge-Kutta method. The analytical expression of thermal warpage of component in free boundary constraint conditions is proposed based on the lamination theory of the elastic mechanics. The expression can reflect the material parameter variation with temperature and provide an effective calculation method to analyze component warpage with large changing temperature during soldering reflow process. Considering the manufacture deviation of volumes and the randomness of the positions of the solder joints, combined with the stand-off stiffness curves and the component warping deformation, the yield of the soldering process can be predicted. According to the types and positions of the failure solder joints, the production technology can be improved. Based on the stand-off curves of solder joints, the influence of the deviation rate of volume of the solder joint and diameter of pad on the yield of self-assembly are simulated. The optimal matching relations of the solder joint volume and the diameter of the pad with the 0.35 mm pitch and 0.3 mm pitch are analyzed.     

Microstructural evolutions of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder joints during thermal cycling

Temperature-induced solder joint fatigue is a main reliability concern for aerospace and military industries whose electronic equipment used in the field is required to remain functional under harsh loadings. Due to the RoHS directive which eventually will prevent lead from being utilized in electronic systems, there is a need for a better understanding of lead-free thermomechanical behavior when subjected to temperature variations. As solder joints mechanical properties are dependent of their microstructural characteristics, developing accurate solder joint fatigue models means to correctly capture the microstructural changes that undergo the solder alloy during thermal cycling. This study reports the Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu (SAC305) solder joints microstructural evolution during damaging temperature cycles. Electron BackScatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis was conducted to assess the SAC305 microstructure corresponding to a specific damage level. Investigated microstructural features included the β-Sn grain size and crystallographic orientation, as well as the grain boundary misorientation and Ag₃Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) size. As-reflowed and damaged components were also mechanically characterized using nanoindentation technique. The microstructural analysis of SAC305 solder joints prior to thermal cycling showed a highly textured microstructure characteristic of hexa-cyclic twinning with two β-Sn morphologies consisting of preferentially orientated macrograins known as Kara's beach ball, along with smaller interlaced grains. The main observation is that recrystallization systematically occurred in SAC305 solder joints during thermal cycling, creating a high population of misoriented grain boundaries leading to intergranular crack initiation and propagation in the high strain regions. The recrystallization process is accompanied with a progressive loss of crystallographic texture and twinning structure. Ag₃Sn IMCs coalescence is another strong indicator of SAC305 solder damage since the bigger and more spaced the IMCs are the less dislocation pinning can prevent recrystallization from occurring.     

Viscoplastic Creep Response and Microstructure of As-Fabricated Microscale Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu Solder Interconnects

The viscoplastic behavior of as-fabricated, undamaged, microscale Sn-3.0 Ag-0.5Cu (SAC305) Pb-free solder is investigated and compared with that of eutectic Sn-37Pb solder and near-eutectic Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu (SAC387) solder from prior studies. Creep measurements of microscale SAC305 solder shear specimens show significant piece-to-piece variability under identical loading. Orientation imaging microscopy reveals that these specimens contain only a few, highly anisotropic Sn grains across the entire joint. For the studied loads, the coarse-grained Sn microstructure has a more significant impact on the scatter in primary creep compared to that in the secondary creep. The observed lack of statistical homogeneity (microstructure) and joint-dependent mechanical behavior of microscale SAC305 joints are consistent with those observed for functional microelectronics interconnects. Compared with SAC305 joints, microscale Sn-37Pb shear specimens exhibit more homogenous behavior and microstructure with a large number of small Sn (and Pb) grains. Creep damage in the Pb-free joint is predominantly concentrated at highly misoriented Sn grain boundaries. The coarse-grained Sn microstructure recrystallizes into new grains with high misorientation angles under creep loading. In spite of the observed joint-dependent behavior, as-fabricated SAC305 is significantly more creep resistant than Sn-37Pb solder and slightly less creep resistant than near-eutectic SAC387 solder. Average model constants for primary and secondary creep of SAC305 are presented. Since the viscoplastic measurements are averaged over a wide range of grain configurations, the creep model constants represent the effective continuum behavior in an average sense. The average secondary creep behavior suggests that the dominant creep mechanism is dislocation climb assisted by dislocation pipe diffusion.