Road Aware Geographical Routing Protocol Coupled with Distance,Direction and Traffic Density Metrics for Urban Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

The new information and communication technologies have changed the trend of communication in all fields. The transportation sector is one of the emerging field, where vehicles are communicating with each other or with infrastructure for different safety and comfort applications in the network. Vehicular ad hoc networks is one of the emerging multi-hop communication type of intelligent transportation field to deal with high mobility and dynamic vehicular traffic to deliver data packets in the network. The high mobility and dynamic topologies make the communication links unreliable and leads to frequent disconnectivity, delay and packet dropping issues in the network. To address these issues, we proposed a road aware geographical routing protocol for urban vehicular ad hoc networks. The proposed routing protocol uses distance, direction and traffic density routing metrics to forward the data towards the destination. The simulation results explore the better performance of proposed protocol in terms of data delivery, network delay and compared it with existing geographical routing protocols.

     

A cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

Energy conservation and fault tolerance are two critical issues in the deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Many cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocols have been proposed for energy conservation and network lifetime maximization in WSNs. However, these protocols suffer from high frequency of re‐clustering as well as extra energy consumption to tolerate failures and consider only some very normal parameters to form clusters without any verification of the energy sufficiency for data routing. Therefore, this paper proposes a cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocol referred as CFTR. This protocol allows higher energy nodes to become Cluster Heads (CHs) and operate multiple rounds to diminish the frequency of re‐clustering. Additionally, for the sake to get better energy efficiency and balancing, we introduce a cost function that considers during cluster formation energy cost from sensor node to CH, energy cost from CH to sink, and another significant parameter, namely, number of cluster members in previous round. Further, the proposed CFTR takes care of nodes, which have no CH in their communication range. Also, it introduces a routing algorithm in which the decision of next hop CH selection is based on a cost function conceived to select routes with sufficient energy for data transfer and distribute uniformly the overall data‐relaying load among the CHs. As well, a low‐overhead algorithm to tolerate the sudden failure of CHs is proposed. We perform extensive simulations on CFTR and compare their results with those of two recent existing protocols to demonstrate its superiority in terms of different metrics.     

Cluster‐based mobility management algorithms for wireless mesh networks

Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) have been the recent advancements and attracting more academicians and industrialists for their seamless connectivity to the internet. Radio resource is one among the prime resources in wireless networks, which is expected to use in an efficient way especially when the mobile nodes are on move. However, providing guaranteed quality of service to the mobile nodes in the network is a challenging issue. To accomplish this, we propose 2 clustering algorithms, namely, static clustering algorithm for WMNs and dynamic clustering algorithm for WMNs. In these algorithms, we propose a new weight‐based cluster head and cluster member selection process for the formation of clusters. The weight of the nodes in WMN is computed considering the parameters include the bandwidth of the node, the degree of node connectivity, and node cooperation factor. Further, we also propose enhanced quality of service enabled routing protocol for WMNs considering the delay, bandwidth, hopcount, and expected transmission count are the routing metrics. The performance of the proposed clustering algorithms and routing protocol are analyzed, and results show high throughput, high packet delivery ratio, and low communication cost compared with the existing baseline mobility management algorithms and routing protocols.     

Deterministic K‐means secure coverage clustering with periodic authentication for wireless sensor networks

Innovative and emerging developments in sensor networks are proven to be the backbone for real‐time applications such as satellite communications, military and border area surveillance systems, health care systems, traffic monitoring systems, seismic and underwater monitoring systems, and agriculture and habitat environment systems. Coverage and clustering techniques enable the sensor network to operate in group‐based and region‐based communication and thus save the node energy. Energy‐efficient protocols save the node energy and increase the network life cycle in a resource‐constrained sensor network. Cluster head (CH) node manages and controls the operations such as network topology, coverage area, and routing paths (multi‐paths and fault‐tolerant paths) of the network. In this paper, we present deterministic K‐means secure coverage clustering (K‐SCC) with periodic authentication. The proposed protocol uses coverage clustering technique with periodic authentication between the CH node and sensor nodes to establish the secure channel in the network. Maximum cover of K nodes is maintained in the secure coverage cluster to achieve authenticated communication between the sensor nodes in the network. The proposed K‐SCC protocol is compared with the existing protocols such as deterministic‐SCC and random‐SCC protocols. Simulation results indicate that the proposed K‐SCC protocol achieves an average of 84% coverage ratio (cluster/sensor node ratio) as compared with 62% coverage ratio in the existing SCC protocols. Simulations also indicate that the proposed K‐SCC protocol consumes 20% less energy as compared with the existing SCC protocol. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An evaluation of routing in vehicular networks using analytic hierarchy process

This paper presents a comprehensive study of the performance of routing protocols in distributed vehicular networks. We propose a novel and efficient routing protocol, namely cross‐layer, weighted, position‐based routing, which considers link quality, mobility and utilisation of nodes in a cross layer manner to make effective position‐based forwarding decisions. An analytic hierarchy process approach is utilised to combine multiple decision criteria into a single weighting function and to perform a comparative evaluation of the effects of aforementioned criteria on forwarding decisions. Comprehensive simulations are performed in realistic representative urban scenarios with synthetic and real traffic. Insights on the effect of different communication and mobility parameters are obtained. The results demonstrate that the proposed protocol outperforms existing routing protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks, including European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI's) proposed greedy routing protocol, greedy traffic aware routing protocol and advanced greedy forwarding in terms of combined packet delivery ratio, end‐to‐end delay and overhead. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

机会网络中基于摆渡节点与簇节点相互协作的路由机制

机会网络是一种不需要在源节点和目的节点之间存在完整路径,利用节点移动带来的相遇机会实现网络通信的延迟容忍自组织网络,它以“存储-携带-处理-转发”的模式进行.为实现互不相交簇间的信息传输,本文设计了一种带阈值的簇移动模型CMMT,并提出了一种基于摆渡（Ferry）节点与簇节点协作的路由算法（CBSW）.该算法减少了冗余的通信和存储开销,以及在Spray阶段簇节点没有遇到目的节点或摆渡节点,进入Wait阶段携带消息的节点采用直接分发方式只向目的节点传输等问题.仿真实验表明,CBSW算法能够增加传输成功率,减少网络开销和传输延迟.     

Performance evaluation of ad hoc routing protocols for military communications

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are of much interest to both the research community and the military because of the potential to establish a communication network in any situation that involves emergencies. Examples are search‐and‐rescue operations, military deployment in hostile environments, and several types of police operations. One critical open issue is how to route messages considering the characteristics of these networks. The nodes act as routers in an environment without a fixed infrastructure, the nodes are mobile, the wireless medium has its own limitations compared to wired networks, and existing routing protocols cannot be employed, at least without modifications. Over the last few years, a number of routing protocols have been proposed and enhanced to address the issue of routing in MANETs. It is not clear how those different protocols perform under different environments. One protocol may be the best in one network configuration but the worst in another. This article provides an analysis and performance evaluation of those protocols that may be suitable for military communications. The evaluation is conducted in two phases. In the first phase, we compare the protocols based on qualitative metrics to locate those that may fit our evaluation criteria. In the second phase, we evaluate the selected protocols from the first phase based on quantitative metrics in a mobility scenario that reflects tactical military movements. The results disclose that there is no routing protocol in the current stage without modifications that can provide efficient routing to any size of network, regardless of the number of nodes and the network load and mobility. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distributed fuzzy approach to unequal clustering and routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks

Due to inherent issue of energy limitation in sensor nodes, the energy conservation is the primary concern for large‐scale wireless sensor networks. Cluster‐based routing has been found to be an effective mechanism to reduce the energy consumption of sensor nodes. In clustered wireless sensor networks, the network is divided into a set of clusters; each cluster has a coordinator, called cluster head (CH). Each node of a cluster transmits its collected information to its CH that in turn aggregates the received information and sends it to the base station directly or via other CHs. In multihop communication, the CHs closer to the base station are burdened with high relay load; as a result, their energy depletes much faster as compared with other CHs. This problem is termed as the hot spot problem. In this paper, a distributed fuzzy logic‐based unequal clustering approach and routing algorithm (DFCR) is proposed to solve this problem. Based on the cluster design, a multihop routing algorithm is also proposed, which is both energy efficient and energy balancing. The simulation results reinforce the efficiency of the proposed DFCR algorithm over the state‐of‐the‐art algorithms, ie, energy‐aware fuzzy approach to unequal clustering, energy‐aware distributed clustering, and energy‐aware routing algorithm, in terms of different performance parameters like energy efficiency and network lifetime.     

A simple void node and loop‐free three‐dimensional routing protocol for multi‐hop wireless networks

Wireless networks are now very essential part for modern ubiquitous communication systems. The design of efficient routing and scheduling techniques for such networks have gained importance to ensure reliable communication. Most of the currently proposed geographic routing protocols are designed for 2D spatial distribution of user nodes, although in many practical scenarios user nodes may be deployed in 3D space also. In this paper, we propose 3D routing protocols for multihop wireless networks that may be implemented in two different ways depending on how the routing paths are computed. When the routing paths to different user nodes from the base station in the wireless network are computed by the base station, we call it centralized protocol (3DMA‐CS). A distributed routing (3DMA‐DS) protocol is implemented when respective routing path of each user node to the base station is computed by the user node. In both of these protocols, the user (base station) selects the relay node to forward packets in the direction of destination, from the set of its neighbours, which makes minimum angle with the reference line drawn from user (base station) to the base station (user), within its transmission range. The proposed protocols are free from looping problem and can solve the void node problem (VNP) of multihop wireless networks. Performance analysis of the proposed protocol is shown by calculating end‐to‐end throughput, average path length, end‐to‐end delay, and energy consumption of each routing path through extensive simulation under different network densities and transmission ranges.     

Implementation of depth‐based routing and its enhancement in AquaSim–Next Generation for underwater wireless sensor networks

In the last decade, underwater wireless sensor networks have been widely studied because of their peculiar aspects that distinguish them from common terrestrial wireless networks. Their applications range from environmental monitoring to military defense. The definition of efficient routing protocols in underwater sensor networks is a challenging topic of research because of the intrinsic characteristics of these networks, such as the need of handling the node mobility and the difficulty in balancing the energy consumed by the nodes. Depth‐based routing protocol is an opportunistic routing protocol for underwater sensor networks, which provides good performance both under high and low node mobility scenarios. The main contribution of our work is presenting a novel simulator for studying depth‐based routing protocol and its variants as well as novel routing protocols. Our simulator is based on AquaSim–Next Generation, which is a specialized tool for studying underwater networks. With our work, we improve the state of the art of underwater routing protocol simulators by implementing, among other features, a detailed cross‐layer communication and an accurate model of the operational modes of acoustic modem and their energy consumption. The simulator is open source and freely downloadable. Moreover, we propose a novel and completely distributed routing protocol, named residual energy–depth‐based routing. It takes into account the residual energy at the nodes' batteries to select the forwarder nodes and improve the network lifetime by providing a more uniform energy consumption among them. We compare its performance with that of depth‐based routing protocol and a receiver‐based routing protocol implementing a probabilistic opportunistic forwarding scheme.     

Scalable peer-to-peer resource discovering scheme for wireless self-organized networks

Peer-to-peer technologies have attracted increasing research attention with fruitful protocols and applications proposed for wired networks. As to mobile environments, there are currently no mature deployments. A novel resource managing and discovering protocol, Cheer, is proposed to realize scalable and effective peer-to-peer lookup in wireless self-organized networks. Cheer resolves the topologies mismatch problem between peer-to-peer overlay networks and actual nodes distribution, allowing for frequent nodes membership changes. With specially designed resource storage table, Cheer also supports multikey and fuzzy lookup. Its hybrid architecture and improved routing scheme based on small-world theory may realize effective lookup routing. Theoretical analysis and simulation results both prove that Cheer makes using peer-to-peer applications in large-scale self-organized mobile networks feasible and promising.     

Provisioning of adaptability to variable topologies for routing schemes in MANETs

Frequent changes in network topologies caused by mobility in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) impose great challenges to designing routing schemes for such networks. Various routing schemes each aiming at particular type of MANET (e.g., flat or clustered MANETs) with different mobility degrees (e.g., low, medium, and high mobility) have been proposed in the literature. However, since a mobile node should not be limited to operate in a particular MANET assumed by a routing scheme, an important issue is how to enable a mobile node to achieve routing performance as high as possible when it roams across different types of MANETs. To handle this issue, a quantity that can predict the link status for a time period in the future with the consideration of mobility is required. In this paper, we discuss such a quantity and investigate how well this quantity can be used by the link caching scheme in the dynamic source routing protocol to provide the adaptability to variable topologies caused by mobility through computer simulation in NS-2.     

SMORT: Scalable multipath on-demand routing for mobile ad hoc networks

Increasing popularity and availability of portable wireless devices, which constitute mobile ad hoc networks, calls for scalable ad hoc routing protocols. On-demand routing protocols adapt well with dynamic topologies of ad hoc networks, because of their lower control overhead and quick response to route breaks. But, as the size of the network increases, these protocols cease to perform due to large routing overhead generated while repairing route breaks. We propose a multipath on-demand routing protocol (SMORT), which reduces the routing overhead incurred in recovering from route breaks, by using secondary paths. SMORT computes fail-safe multiple paths, which provide all the intermediate nodes on the primary path with multiple routes (if exists) to destination. Exhaustive simulations using GloMoSim with large networks (2000 nodes) confirm that SMORT is scalable, and performs better even at higher mobility and traffic loads, when compared to the disjoint multipath routing protocol (DMRP) and ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol.     

A multi‐anchoring approach in mobile IP networks

Many recent mobility solutions, including derivatives of the well‐known Mobile IP as well as emerging protocols employed by future Internet architectures, propose to realize mobility management by distributing anchoring nodes (Home Agents or other indirection agents) over the Internet. One of their main goals is to address triangle routing by optimizing routes between mobile nodes and correspondent nodes. Thus, a key component of such proposals is the algorithm to select proper mobility anchoring nodes for mobile nodes. However, most current solutions adopt a single‐anchoring approach, which means each mobile node attaches to a sole mobility anchor at one time. In this paper, “we argue that the single‐anchoring approach has drawbacks when facing various mobility scenarios. Then, we offer a novel multi‐anchoring approach that allows each mobile node to select an independent mobility anchor for each correspondent node. We show that in most cases our proposal gains more performance benefits with an acceptable additional cost by evaluation based on real network topologies. For the cases that lead to potential high cost, we also provide a lightweight version of our solution which aims to preserve most performance benefits while keeping a lower cost. At last, we demonstrate how our proposal can be integrated into current Mobile IP networks. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy Efficient Enhanced OLSR Routing Protocol Using Particle Swarm Optimization with Certificate Revocation Scheme for VANET

In Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs), routing and security are the mainchallenges. In our previous work, we have presented cluster-based secure communication with the certificate revocation scheme for securable communication between the vehicles.Cluster formation is done using the trust degree of each vehicle and this trust degree is calculated based on the direct and indirect trust degree of each vehicle. Information of eachvehicle is gathered by the corresponding cluster head (CH) in a cluster. This information is maintained by the Certificate Revocation List (CRL) in the Certificate Authority (CA). CA isolates a vehicle as an attacked node if it has less trust degree than the threshold trust value and it invalidates the certificate of attacked or revoked nodes. Before transmission, each vehicle in a cluster validates its certificate with the support of CA. After the validation, the other challenge of VANET i.e., efficient route is to be established so that Energy efficient enhanced OLSR routing protocol using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm is presented in this paper. After the establishment of the efficient route, the vehicle deploys the symmetric cryptography approach for securable transmission. Simulation results show that the performance of our proposed approach outperforms the performance of existing work in terms of energy efficiency.

     

Energy Efficient Layered Cluster Head Rotation Based Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

Energy efficiency is of paramount concern in underwater sensor networks. The very nature of underwater environment makes it difficult to deploy an energy efficient network that enhances network lifetime. The existing protocols of terrestrial networks cannot be implemented directly to underwater scenarios and as such new protocols have to be designed because of speed of signal propagation under water. Improving the energy efficiency in UWSNs is an active area of research and many protocols to that end have been proposed. The routing protocol that this paper proposes is Energy Efficient Layered Cluster Head Rotation (EE-LCHR) routing protocol. This protocol makes use of the multi sink architecture and creates virtual layers containing a number of sensor nodes such that the hop count from the sensor nodes in a particular layer to the surface sink is the same. Also each layer has a number of clusters with a cluster head that keeps on rotating depending on the fitness value of the sensor nodes. The proposed protocol as compared to other extant protocols like EE-DBR and DBR improves network lifetime. The presence of virtual layers and rotation of cluster heads together ensure that energy balance is better achieved in our proposed protocol which leads to an enhanced network lifetime.

     

Efficiency measure of routing protocols in vehicular ad hoc network using freeway mobility model

To move packets among the vehicles mobility pattern of vehicles in a vehicular network performs an imperative factor for creating competent routing protocol. To reproduce the movement features of vehicles in VANET is the main purpose of the mobility model. Manhattan mobility model is conversed by a lot of researchers. Merely very limited research study is prepared on highway and freeway mobility models. In this document Cluster scheme, different routing protocols are used to the freeway mobility based vehicular architecture. The Ns2.34 simulation effect illustrates the effort of cluster scheme over different protocols and standard 802.11p. The competence of the routing protocols in the vehicular communication by means of freeway movement pattern is estimated by different network parameters.     

Clustering‐based power‐controlled routing for mobile wireless sensor networks

This paper presents two new routing protocols for mobile sensor networks, viz. power‐controlled routing (PCR) and its enhanced version, i.e. Enhanced Power‐Controlled Routing (EPCR). In both the protocols, fixed transmission power is employed in the clustering phase but when ordinary nodes are about to send their data to their respective cluster‐heads, they change their transmission power according to their distance from their cluster‐head. While in PCR, the nodes are associated with the cluster‐head on the basis of weight, in EPCR it is done on the basis of distance. In addition to the protocols, we are suggesting a packet loss recovery mechanism for the PCR and EPCR. Both protocols work well for both mobile and static networks and are designed to achieve high network lifetime, high packet delivery ratio, and high network throughput. These protocols are extensively simulated using mass mobility model, with different speeds and different number of nodes to evaluate their performance. Simulation results show that both PCR and EPCR are successful in achieving their objectives by using variable transmission powers and smart clustering. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A heterogeneous‐network aided public‐key management scheme for mobile ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network does not require fixed infrastructure to construct connections among nodes. Due to the particular characteristics of mobile ad hoc networks, most existing secure protocols in wired networks do not meet the security requirements for mobile ad hoc networks. Most secure protocols in mobile ad hoc networks, such as secure routing, key agreement and secure group communication protocols, assume that all nodes must have pre‐shared a secret, or pre‐obtained public‐key certificates before joining the network. However, this assumption has a practical weakness for some emergency applications, because some nodes without pre‐obtained certificates will be unable to join the network. In this paper, a heterogeneous‐network aided public‐key management scheme for mobile ad hoc networks is proposed to remedy this weakness. Several heterogeneous networks (such as satellite, unmanned aerial vehicle, or cellular networks) provide wider service areas and ubiquitous connectivity. We adopt these wide‐covered heterogeneous networks to design a secure certificate distribution scheme that allows a mobile node without a pre‐obtained certificate to instantly get a certificate using the communication channel constructed by these wide‐covered heterogeneous networks. Therefore, this scheme enhances the security infrastructure of public key management for mobile ad hoc networks. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Scalable-Adaptive Snack Routing Strategy (SRS) for Semi-Administrated Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (SAMANETs)

Recently, Mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs) are growing in popularity and importance. They present a possible communication among a set of mobile nodes with no need for either a pre-established infrastructure or a central administration. However, in order to guarantee an efficient communication among network nodes, efficient routing algorithms should be established. Routing plays the central role in providing ubiquitous network communications services in such dynamic networks. The problem is further aggravated through the node mobility as any node may move at any time without notice. Several routing protocols had been proposed; however, most of them suffer from control packet flooding, which results in a scalability problem. In this paper, a new routing strategy for MANETs is proposed which is called Snack Routing Strategy (SRS). The basic idea of SRS is to continuously inform the network mobile nodes with any changes in the network topology without overloading the network by a huge amount of control messages. SRS is a hybrid routing strategy that relies on Learning by accumulation, hence, new routes can be discovered by learning the accumulative data stored in the nodes routing tables by several foraging artificial snacks. SRS uses no periodic routing advertisement messages but uses artificial snacks instead, thereby reducing the network bandwidth overhead and minimizing end-to-end transmission delay. SRS has been compared against two well known protocols AODV and DSR. Experimental results have shown that SRS outperforms both AODV and DSR as it introduces the minimal routing overheads.