湿地冷湿效应初探

对湿地周围不同距离农田的近地面气温、湿度、地温以及典型湿地温的测定表明，湿地冷湿效应与湿地植被及其积水深度有关。在所选择的3种湿地植被中，漂筏苔草积水最深，冷湿效应最大，其次为毛果苔草，小叶章最小。不同距离农田的近地面气温和湿度变化不同，随距离增加，温度增大，湿度减小。这种变化主要是由湿地的局部冷湿作用造成的。农田地温平均值高出小叶章湿地4℃之多，高出漂筏苔草湿地近5℃，表明湿地的制冷作用很明显。     

三江平原典型湿地冷湿效应的初步研究

在三江平原沼泽湿地生态试验站内选择3种群落(毛果苔草-狭叶甜茅-漂筏苔草群落，狭叶甜茅-漂筏苔草群落，小叶樟群落)，在各群落内分别选取一种主要建群种，测定湿地植被的蒸腾强度，计算出群落范围内湿地植被的增湿降温效应，即冷湿效应。研究结果表明，湿地冷湿效应与湿地植被类型有关，3种植被中漂筏苔草的冷湿作用最大，其次为小叶樟，毛果苔草最小。这是因为漂筏苔草是典型的湿地植被，生长于多水环境中，其增湿降温作用较明显。湿地植被冷湿效应与湿地面积大小有一定的相关关系，湿地植被面积越大，其冷湿作用越强，并且多种植被的相互作用可以加强湿地的冷湿作用。     

三江平原典型环型湿地主要植物群落枯落物的热值变化

研究了小叶章(Calamag rostis angustifolia)、毛果苔草(Carex lasiocarpa)和漂筏苔草(Carex pseudocuraica)群落枯落物在1个生长季内的分解热值变化特征,并初步探讨其影响因素。环型湿地3种植物群落由于各自的微环境不同致使其枯落物热值变化有所差异。6月至10月,小叶章群落枯落物热值呈现逐渐下降趋势,而毛果苔草群落和漂筏苔草群落由于所处环型湿地位置不同而形成不同于小叶章群落的湿地水热条件,从而造成其枯落物热值的总体变化趋势是先下降再上升,最后又下降。同时,同一群落不同深度枯落物热值变化也不同。0—10、10—20和20—30 cm土层热值变化相似,而30—40 cm土层热值变化规律不明显。     

碟形沼泽湿地水中氮的动态变化及影响因素分析

通过对三江平原碟形湿地不同植被类型沼泽水体中氮含量的研究表明,漂筏苔草、毛果苔草和乌拉苔草沼泽水体中各形态氮含量具有明显的季节变化特征.总氮(TN)含量在5-10月份的植物生长季节表现为先增加后降低的趋势,不同植被类型沼泽水体TN含量明显不同.NH4+-N是无机氮的主要存在形态,含量比例在44.81%～98.89%之间.在整个生长季,乌拉苔草沼泽水NH4+-N含量呈先增加后降低的趋势,毛果苔草沼泽水NH4+-N含量在8月份具有峰值,漂筏苔草沼泽水NH4+-N含量较低,波动不大.硝态氮(NO3--N)在生长季中期含量较低,而亚硝态氮(NO2--N)含量较高;生长季末期NO3--N含量增高,而NO2--N含量降低.沼泽水体中不同形态氮浓度与植被类型、植被生长阶段密切相关,并且受到水温、降雨、蒸发、农田排水等因素的影响.     

沼泽湿地局地小气候"冷湿岛"效应

利用沼泽湿地及其周围旱田对比观测的方法,对沼泽湿地的局地小气候效应进行了研究。结果表明:与周围旱田相比,沼泽湿地近地层(0.5—5.0m)气温低,湿度大,具有显著的冷湿岛效应,且不同高度冷湿效应表现不同,越靠近地面,冷湿效应越明显。6—9月的野外试验结果表明,沼泽湿地的冷湿岛效应在7、8月比较明显;比较沼泽湿地和旱田温度、湿度的日变化发现,沼泽湿地在12:00—14:00的日间午后时段呈现出较明显的冷湿岛效应。     

三江平原不同水位梯度湿地地上生物量动态特征

水分条件变化直接影响湿地植物群落的分布及其生产量,为了阐明不同水分条件湿地初级生产力的形成规律,揭示水文格局对湿地生态系统物质生产过程的调控机理,采用收获法研究了三江平原不同水位梯度上的小叶章(Calamagrostics angustifolia)、乌拉苔草(Carex meyeriana)和毛苔草(Carex lasiocarpa)湿地地上生物量的结构动态及其增长速率,结果表明:3类湿地地上及其各器官生物量均呈单峰型变化,小叶章湿地和乌拉苔草湿地地上生物量的峰值出现的时间早于毛苔草湿地,而且小叶章湿地和乌拉苔草湿地各季节地上生物量均大于毛苔草湿地.茎对小叶章湿地地上生物量的平均贡献率与毛苔草湿地相近,均大于乌拉苔草湿地;叶对小叶章湿地地上生物量的平均贡献率与毛苔草湿地相近,均小于乌拉苔草湿地.3类湿地地上生物量的绝对增长率和相对增长率的变化趋势基本相同,但不同阶段绝对增长率和相对增长率值的大小存在差异.3类湿地地上生物量及各组分生物量的季节动态变化均符合抛物线模型,并且各模型拟合精度均较高,R2基本都在0.92以上.     

模拟水深和氮添加对三江平原湿地植物功能性状的影响

水深和氮素是影响湿地植物生长的关键因素,研究两者对功能性状的影响有助于预测未来环境变化下湿地植物的生长与分布趋势.以三江平原沼泽湿地3种优势植物(漂筏苔草Carex pseudocuraica、毛苔草Carex lasiocarpa和燕子花Iris laevigata)为研究对象,设置3个水深(0、5、15 cm)和3个氮浓度(0、12、36 mmol/L)的双因子控制实验,探讨不同水深和氮添加对3种湿地植物功能性状的影响.结果显示,水深和氮添加对漂筏苔草根冠比和燕子花株高、地下与地上生物量及根冠比存在交互影响.在0 mmol/L氮浓度下,随着水深的增加,漂筏苔草根冠比降低,燕子花根冠比呈先降低后上升的趋势.在12 mmol/L氮浓度下,随着水深的增加,燕子花地下与地上生物量降低,根冠比增加.随着氮浓度的增加,燕子花株高在0、5 cm水深时降低,在15 cm水深时增加.水深对漂筏苔草叶面积、地下与地上生物量和燕子花叶面积有显著影响,随着水深的增加,漂筏苔草叶面积、地下与地上生物量呈先增加后下降的趋势,燕子花叶面积降低.氮添加对毛苔草株高、叶面积及根冠比有显著影响,随着氮浓度的增加,毛苔草株高和叶面积降低,根冠比呈先降低后上升的趋势.本研究表明湿地植物对水深和氮添加水平的响应依赖具体物种和功能性状指标而不同,未来还应加强湿地植物地下性状的研究.(图3表1参56)     

三江平原典型环型湿地生物多样性

以三江平原典型环型湿地为研究对象,在前人研究的基础上,结合野外调查,研究环型湿地生境多样性和物种多样性的现状及其形成原因,并探讨2者之间的关系。研究表明,三江平原环型湿地生境较为复杂,生境多样性高,生境多样性主要是由水文和地貌在不同层次的时空尺度上相互作用而形成和维持的;由环型湿地中心向边缘,湿地植物的丰富度指数和多样性指数呈先增加后减少的趋势,在塔头苔草(Carexcasiocaepa)群落处达到最大值,而漂筏苔草(Carexpseudocuraica)群落和沼柳-越菊柳(Salixbrachypoda Salixmyrtilloides)群落较低。湿地动物物种多样性丰富,大型土壤动物多样性与均匀性以芦苇-苔草群落为最高而其优势度最低,中小型土壤动物的均匀度和多样性以小叶章(Calamagrosticsangustifolia)沼泽化草甸最高而其优势度最低;三江平原环型湿地物种多样性和生境多样性关系密切。     

三江平原典型环型湿地生物多样性

以三江平原典型环型湿地为研究对象，在前人研究的基础上，结合野外调查，研究环型湿地生境多样性和物种多样性的现状及其形成原因，并探讨2者之间的关系。研究表明，三江平原环型湿地生境较为复杂，生境多样性高，生境多样性主要是由水文和地貌在不同层次的时空尺度上相互作用而形成和维持的；由环型湿地中心向边缘，湿地植物的丰富度指数和多样性指数呈先增加后减少的趋势，在塔头苔草(Carex casiocaepa)群落处达到最大值，而漂筏苔草(Carex pseudocuraica)群落和沼柳一越菊柳(Salix brachypoda—Salix myrtilloides)群落较低。湿地动物物种多样性丰富，大型土壤动物多样性与均匀性以芦苇-苔草群落为最高而其优势度最低，中小型土壤动物的均匀度和多样性以小叶章(Calamagrostics angustifolia)沼泽化草甸最高而其优势度最低；三江平原环型湿地物种多样性和生境多样性关系密切。     

三江平原湿地典型植物群落氮的积累与分配

采用野外采样和室内分析结合的方法,研究了三江平原湿地典型植物群落氮的积累与分配特征。结果表明,小叶章（Calamagrostics angustifolia）、乌拉苔草（Carex meyeriana）和毛苔草（Carex lasiocarpa）群落地上器官氮含量不存在显著差异,根的氮含量存在显著差异,枯落物的氮含量表现为乌拉苔草群落〉小叶章群落〉毛苔草群落（p〈0.01）。小叶章、乌拉苔草和毛苔草群落不同部分的氮积累量和积累速率（VN）季节变化明显,三者地上器官、枯落物的氮积累量和VN表现为乌拉苔草群落〉小叶章群落〉毛苔草群落;三者根的氮积累量表现为小叶章群落〉毛苔草群落〉乌拉苔草群落,VN表现为毛苔草群落〉小叶章群落〉乌拉苔草群落。小叶章、乌拉苔草和毛苔草群落不同部分的氮分配比在各时期差异明显,根是重要的氮储库,其分配比高达（87.76±2.55）%、（79.84±7.53）%和（89.25±5.49）%;地上部分的氮分配比均以叶最高,茎较低;地上与地下的氮分配比呈相反变化规律,反映了其在氮供给方面的密切联系。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Use of stochastic patch occupancy models in the California red-legged frog for Bayesian inference regarding past events and future persistence

Assessing causes of population decline is critically important to management of threatened species. Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) are popular tools for examining spatial and temporal dynamics of populations when presence–absence data in multiple habitat patches are available. We developed a Bayesian Markov chain method that extends existing SPOMs by focusing on past environmental changes that may have altered occupancy patterns prior to the beginning of data collection. Using occupancy data from 3 creeks, we applied the method to assess 2 hypothesized causes of population decline—in situ die-off and residual impact of past source population loss—in the California red-legged frog. Despite having no data for the 20–30 years between the hypothetical event leading to population decline and the first data collected, we were able to discriminate among hypotheses, finding evidence that in situ die-off increased in 2 of the creeks. Although the creeks had comparable numbers of occupied segments, owing to different extinction–colonization dynamics, our model predicted an 8-fold difference in persistence probabilities of their populations to 2030. Adding a source population led to a greater predicted persistence probability than did decreasing the in situ die-off, emphasizing that reversing the deleterious impacts of a disturbance may not be the most efficient management strategy. We expect our method will be useful for studying dynamics and evaluating management strategies of many species.