街区污染物扩散的数值研究

对街区峡谷内交通污染扩散规律的研究是城市空气质量预测的主要内容之一。应用现代流体力学数值模拟方法进行大量算例的计算和分析,研究了城市街区峡谷污染物二维扩散的规律。包括比较各种条件下污染物的扩散浓度,考察来流风速、街区特征比例和日照等因素对扩散的影响,通过研究流场及湍流强度分析其扩散的动力学原因,为改进工程预测模式提供依据。     

不同结构形状的街道峡谷内污染物扩散

针对不同的城市街道峡谷结构形状,通过求解二维不可压缩N-S方程和K-ε湍流模型方程及污染物对流扩散方程,数值模拟了街道峡谷内的流场及机动车排放污染物浓度场,从而说明了街道峡谷的结构是影响街道峡谷内污染气体扩散的主要因素之一。     

街区交通污染物光化学反应及其自然通风稀释

随着城市化进程的加剧,汽车尾气在太阳辐射作用下发生光化学反应,生成的气态污染物NO_x会在街区中扩散造成环境污染,这也是光化学烟雾形成的重要环节.本文通过数值模拟的方法,将风洞实验对比验证典型高宽比1的街区峡谷模型计算的可靠性和准确性,再运用RNG k-ε湍流模型耦合NO_x化学反应模型进行数值计算,探究存在光化学反应下的气态污染物在城市六街区中的扩散迁移规律.结果发现,上游街区的光化学反应程度要大于下游街区,但是因为街区自身涡旋结构的流动以及自然通风的稀释作用会慢慢将生成气态污染物迁移到下游街区中,且气态污染物会在街区背风侧形成积聚达到一定的浓度后会沉积在整个街区中.     

建筑动力学作用对近地面短历时点源污染扩散的影响

利用一次示踪剂扩散外场实验获得的数据,对城市小区尺度模式USSM在模拟短历时点源方面的能力进行了验证,结果表明USSM能较为合理地描述城区短历时点源的扩散特征。利用USSM进行了3个案例的情景模拟分析,得出结论:1)街区内建筑群的平均高度越高,建筑群之间的流场越紊乱,并且越容易形成涡旋型环流,同时建筑群之间的风速会变得越来越小。除此之外,随着建筑群平均高度的增加,受建筑群影响风场出现扰动现象的范围越大。2)建筑群平均高度的增高会显著降低街区内的扩散能力,并且这种影响可能是非线性的,当街区由小高层建筑为主变为高层建筑为主时,污染物输送扩散效率会急剧下降。     

街道峡谷内汽车排放污染物浓度分布的观测与数值模拟

在上海某典型街道峡谷内按一定的空间布点,在一定时段内同时对各布点进行采样并做一氧化碳浓度分析,同时记录车辆种类、车流量、气象条件等,分析街道峡谷内污染物浓度的分布.运用风向频率加权(WDFW)方法,结合大气流动和污染物扩散的CFD模型进行数值模拟计算.结果表明,数值模拟结果和现场观测结果较吻合,建筑物低的一侧污染物浓度远高于建筑物高的一侧污染物浓度,两侧的污染物浓度随着高度的增加而降低.     

城市街道内机动车排放污染物NO对流扩散的特征

采用现场观测和数值模拟的方法研究了城市街道内机动车排放污染物中的NO扩散特征。结果表明:城市街道中机动车排放污染物的对流扩散取决于屋顶风向和风速,随着建筑物顶部气流速度的增大,街道内同样位置的污染物浓度相对减小;当风向垂直于街道轴线时,街道内同样位置的污染物浓度最大;同时街道内机动车排放的污染物浓度与车流量成正比关系,即机动车流量越大污染物浓度越高。     

长江宜昌段溢油事故影响数学模型分析研究

为研究长江内河突发性溢油事故油膜运动扩散规律,利用MIKE21软件建立了长江宜昌江段平面二维溢油数学模型,模拟了该江段不同水文条件、不同溢油总量条件下的溢油事故的影响范围和程度。模拟结果显示:丰水期和枯水期油膜运动扩散规律不同,油膜厚度、飘移范围和持续时间有显著差异;对于狭长型河道,溢油量对油膜厚度影响较大,而对油膜飘移范围影响较小。该结论可为内河溢油事故应急处理和内河溢油事故数值模拟深入研究提供参考依据。     

北京市城市湖泊上空甲烷浓度水平和季节特征

通过对北京市市区内大于10 000 m2的10个湖泊上空0.5 m处甲烷浓度的季度观测,研究了北京市城市湖泊上空甲烷的浓度水平,并对其中4个典型的湖泊进行了每月1~2次的观测,分析了城市湖泊上空甲烷浓度的连续变化特征。结果表明湖泊上空甲烷浓度年平均值为2.337±0.431 mL/m3,高于全球均值和其他相关研究人员对北京市上空监测的结果。湖泊上空甲烷浓度季节之间的差异性显著(P<0.01),夏季的甲烷浓度较高(2.758±0.516mL/m3),秋季和春季相对较低。4个典型湖泊上空甲烷浓度连续变化具有一定的规律,大都在7-8月份达到甲烷浓度的高峰期,3月初融冰时都会有小幅增加;位于市中心的什刹海上空甲烷浓度相对较高。这表明了北京市内湖泊是甲烷排放的一个重要源头,同时也反映了北京作为一特大城市,其湖泊上空甲烷浓度受人类活动影响的特征。     

城市街道空气质量与道路绿化型式的关系

通过对街区中茂密行道树对空气污染物扩散的利弊进行理论分析的基础上，以CO为自然示踪气体，对西安市几个典型街道中的气态污染物浓度分布做了实测。实测结果指出，道路车流量的大小是行道树树冠的净化功能和对污染物扩散的阻碍作用所占权重的主要影响因素，行道树对污染物扩散的阻碍作用主要受控于树木郁闭度而非绿量，指出城市道路绿化不应盲目追求绿量的提高，并据此提出在街道绿化中应根据车流量的大小采取不同绿化方案的建议。     

福州市行道树对交通污染物扩散的影响

选择福州市中心城区3种典型的行道树结构作为研究对象,以CO为交通污染物的示踪气体,分别对绿化带两侧,即道路中央和人行道上CO浓度的时空变化进行了测定,分析了道路中央CO浓度与人行道上CO浓度的差值ΔC。研究结果表明:不同结构的行道树对交通污染物扩散有显著影响。主干道低覆盖度结构,最有利于交通污染物扩散;主干道高覆盖度结构和支路结构,则不利于交通污染物的扩散,使大量污染物涌入人行道,对行人健康构成危害。交通污染物的扩散效果取决于树冠结构,通过对各道路树冠结构的研究发现,疏透度与覆盖度均较小时,扩散效果最好;疏透度较大、覆盖度也较大时,扩散效果最差。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Use of stochastic patch occupancy models in the California red-legged frog for Bayesian inference regarding past events and future persistence

Assessing causes of population decline is critically important to management of threatened species. Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) are popular tools for examining spatial and temporal dynamics of populations when presence–absence data in multiple habitat patches are available. We developed a Bayesian Markov chain method that extends existing SPOMs by focusing on past environmental changes that may have altered occupancy patterns prior to the beginning of data collection. Using occupancy data from 3 creeks, we applied the method to assess 2 hypothesized causes of population decline—in situ die-off and residual impact of past source population loss—in the California red-legged frog. Despite having no data for the 20–30 years between the hypothetical event leading to population decline and the first data collected, we were able to discriminate among hypotheses, finding evidence that in situ die-off increased in 2 of the creeks. Although the creeks had comparable numbers of occupied segments, owing to different extinction–colonization dynamics, our model predicted an 8-fold difference in persistence probabilities of their populations to 2030. Adding a source population led to a greater predicted persistence probability than did decreasing the in situ die-off, emphasizing that reversing the deleterious impacts of a disturbance may not be the most efficient management strategy. We expect our method will be useful for studying dynamics and evaluating management strategies of many species.