命题内部的两种基本语义关系

本文把命题当作“说话人化”的命题看待 ,对其内部两种基本语义关系“预设意义”和“蕴涵意义”作了对比分析。命题内部的语义关系当然不止这两种 ,但它们在命题语句意思的解读中发挥着重要的作用。文章着重从蕴涵和预设的性质、特征、功能 ,以及它们同逻辑、否定等的关系 ,从其真假值的分布等方面入手 ,对二者的区别作了较为详尽分析     

英汉语用和语义否定句的机理研究

本文通过对否定命题及其功能的研究 ,探讨英汉否定句not (不 ) quantifier(量词 )的话语逻辑蕴涵 ,旨在根据以下两条原则解读逻辑否定句的内在机理 :(i)语用否定句否定的是根据“适量原则”(maximofquantity)推导出来的含意 ,即话语间往往隐含语义强调 的级阶(scale)递增关系 ;形成命题的语用否定。 (ii)根据Horn(1 972 )的标记否定理论 (MarkedNegationTheory) ,带有标记 (marked)特征的否定句否定的不是命题逻辑关系的真值条件 (truthcondition) ,而是适宜条件 (felicitycondition)。     

命题否定与情态否定：明清汉语是非诘问句类型探讨

诘问句语义表达的实质是否定.本文以明清时期的语料为对象讨论汉语是非诘问句的否定方式及其类型.认为是非诘问句可分为命题否定问与情态否定问.前者为客观否定,后者为主观否定,它们是属于不同语义层次的两类问句.     

论"不A不B"的否定意义及其制约因素

不A不B”是汉语中一种常见的特殊否定结构 ,可以表达多种否定意义。本文将A、B放在特定的语义场中进行考察 ,指出“不A不B”的否定意义主要取决于A、B的语义性质。同时 ,本文根据“主观性”与“主观化”的理论 ,分析了“主观性”这种语用因素对“不A不B”否定意义的影响。     

日语句子中否定的作用范围

在日语中,否定辞“”可作用于句子的命题和语气部分。文章从句子的结构层次出发,结合否定的特性,得出在否定句中,命题部分的否定范围涉及除原因要素之外的所有命题要素,并且,在一定的语境中,否定范围内的要素都能成为否定焦点这一结论。     

"V不得"的否定焦点与语法化过程

(1)在“V不得”句式中 ,O能否出现 ,将决定“V不得”是否有歧义。 (2 )“V不得”带O ,否定焦点在O。不带O ,否定焦点有两种 :一种在“得” ,一种在V。 (3)“V不得”的原型意义是对某种客观事实的否定 ,由于焦点位移 ,分化出一个边缘意义。尽管这个边缘意义跟原型意义不同 ,但它毕竟是借助“得”的结果义形成的。因此 ,它最初应该是跟原型意义在一个语义框架里。随着语法化的不断深化 ,才开始分化出去 ,形成一个独自的语义框架。(4 )A类“V不得”直接构成命题 ,不派生情态意义 ,B类“V不得”派生出的情态意义是假性情态。“V不得”具有歧义 ,是因为它充当连接命题和情态的环状结构里的成分。 (5 )“V不得O”和A类“V不得”不需听话者介入 ,B类“V不得”要求听话者介入 ,而且还可以镶嵌在表示真性情态的句式里。     

“难道”句都是反问句吗?

“难道A(吗/不成)?”句中的A在语义上是预设Y的否定命题,是说话人认定的行为X发生的理由或依据。通常认为,“难道”句都是反问句,根据反问句所具有的“命题 否定”的语义特征,A应为说话人认定不为真的命题,但我们发现,有些“难道”句中的A事实上是说话人倾向于认为真的命题。这类“难道”句的句法、语义、语用特征均有别于一般的反问句,就句类归属而言,这类“难道”句可看作介于反问句与非问句之间的一种特殊问句。     

“你别说”的演化脉络及修辞分析

“你别说”是一个具有多重语义和功能的语言形式.它的基本功能是对对话方说的行为的否定,即行为阻止.由之发展出语义否定,包括言谈内容否定和言谈行为否定两种情况,从后者进一步分化出现实性否定和测度性否定.测度性否定是说话者对测度中的消极命题进行否定,用于间接否定时,使用者采取的是以退为进的话语策略,否定功能丢失、情态功能提高,“你别说”成为话语标记语.在演变的不同阶段上,“你别说”可以实现不同的修辞功能.     

“又”的语义背景与否定充分条件的语用解释

语气副词“又”的语义背景可识解为隐含一个充分条件假言命题。用“又”的否定句可通过否定充分条件假言命题的前件来否定后件，不符合一般的逻辑事理，但可从认识事理和语用事理角度得到解释。其顺应的认识事理是一种“肯定-否定关联推理”；语用事理则是关联、礼貌原则的作用。否定充分条件实际上体现了自然语言游移于“真实与恰当之间”的逻辑张力。     

论叙实谓词和含蓄谓词的前提意义与句法特征

前提(presupposition)主要有两种：语义前提(semantic presupposition)和语用前提(pragmatic presupposition)。前者指在肯定和否定的情况下恒真的命题。如果命题‘P’是命题‘q’真实性的必要条件．那么‘P’就是‘q’的(语义)前提(见Lyons,1977：597)。后者指发话人认为是真的或大概是真的那些信仰和知识。     

"まで"语用含义浅论

"まで"的基本意义是表示程度和界限,例示极端类推其他的意义是"まで"的语用含义.在否定句中"まで"产生歧义的原因一方面在于语境的不明确性,另一方面在于日语否定句有谓词否定和命题否定两种解释.要消除"まで"的歧义可以添加"は"、"が"、"も"或添加语境.     

命题内容和间接引语

在正常的交际过程中,人们说出一句话,同时也表达了一个命题。引述别人的话时,直接引语引述的是他的原话,间接引语引述的是他的话语所表达的命题。虽然一个语句可以表达一个命题,但同一命题内容却可用不同的语句表达,所以间接引语的表达可以有多种形式,而不应像传统语法规定的那样只有一种。间接引语采用哪种形式,取决于转述人的意图和具体的语境,以及他对受话人就转述之事的了解程度。     

元语言否定的认知语用功能探微

元语言否定是同描述性否定相对而言的,自20世纪80年代中后期以来受到语言学者的关注.从认知语用学的角度探讨元语言否定的使用理据和功能特征,元语言否定通过对前述话语的回声式提述,传达了一种非真值的程序性意义,从而引导认知者寻找具有最佳关联性的语境效果,是人类根本的元表征能力的具体反映.     

多声话语的论辩取向

语言具有固有的自我论辩潜力。多声性话语的表层结构虽然是一个独白结构,深层结构却是一个由多种声音参与的对话和论辩结构,其中既有言语主体的声音,也有其他“说话人”的声音(即对先期发生的言语事件的指涉)。众声论辩指向特定的方向或结论,即言语主体的真实态度和交际意图。该论辩取向受制于论辩小品词的规约和会话含义,而与言语客体的数据变化无关;它还受制于话语的句法、语义和语用特征,与话语的命题形式一致(否定话语)或相逆(反语)。     

Perception of utterance relatedness during the first-word-period

Interactions between six toddlers (aged 1;0 to 1;6) and adults were examined to ascertain adult perceptions of toddler utterance relatedness and to determine temporal and interactional features that underlie those perceptions. Five raters made judgments regarding relatedness of the child utterances to the previous adult utterances; 251 utterances were examined. Utterances judged by adults as related occurred within 4.25 seconds of the preceding adult utterance nearly 90% of the time. This study also points to the need for using interactional categories that go beyond describing utterance relatedness, and introduces terms (i.e. coparticipatory, initiation, narrowed focus) for doing so.     

Early syntactic creativity: a usage-based approach

The aim of the current study was to determine the degree to which a sample of one child's creative utterances related to utterances that the child previously produced. The utterances to be accounted for were all of the intelligible, multi-word utterances produced by the child in a single hour of interaction with her mother early in her third year of life (at age 2;1.11). We used a high-density database consisting of 5 hours of recordings per week together with a maternal diary for the previous 6 weeks. Of the 295 multi-word utterances on tape, 37% were 'novel' in the sense that they had not been said in their entirety before. Using a morpheme-matching method, we identified the way(s) in which each novel utterance differed from its closest match in the preceding corpus. In 74% of the cases we required only one operation to match the previous utterance and the great majority of these consisted of the substitution of a word (usually a noun) into a previous utterance or schema. Almost all the other single-operation utterances involved adding a word onto the beginning or end of a previous utterance. 26% of the novel, multi-word utterances required more than one operation to match the closest previous utterance, although many of these only involved a combination of the two operations seen for the single-operation utterances. Some others were, however, more complex to match. The results suggest that the relatively high degree of creativity in early English child language could be at least partially based upon entrenched schemas and a small number of simple operations to modify them. We discuss the implications of these results for the interplay in language production between strings registered in memory and categorial knowledge.     

\neg(A&B). Gapping, negation and speech act operators

The paper shows that in gapping sentences where a negative marker in the first conjunct takes wide scope over the whole coordination, the negation obligatorily operates on the level of the speech act rather than on the level of the proposition. In assertions, this is denial negation, and in questions, outer negation. The negation operating on the level of the speech act is argued to be an instantiation of the degrees of strength that are associated with the sincerity conditions of a speech act, which is a feature that it shares with VERUM focus and certain epistemic adverbs. Syntactically, this negation is situated higher than propositional negation, viz. in the CP of the clause. This suggests that gapping with wide scope negation is fundamentally different from ‘ordinary’ gapping which always involves propositional negation. This paper is based on and develops further a chapter of Repp (2005).     

否定意义的主观性

否定是人的断定之一,它既可以体现群体人的断定,也可以体现个体人的断定。在具体的语境中,否定意义与说话人的言说意向密切相关。本文主要讨论在言说意向为祈使、评价、表态等时,否定词表达的各种主观意义,进而揭示否定意义的主观性及其本质。     

Optimising elliptical utterances in dialogue

Elliptical utterances in dialogue are here investigated using Optimality Theory (OT). The focus is on generation, and the analysis as well as the examples used are based on a study of elliptical utterances in corpora of recorded dialogues. The OT analysis makes use of the information structural notions of focus and ground. Two important optimisations of elliptical utterances are investigated. One concerns the optimisation of the part of the context that the elliptical utterance is connected to, and the other concerns the determination of whether an elliptical or a non-elliptical utterance is to be produced.