Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

Economic considerations in agroforestry projects

Economic benefits that can accrue to the small farmer from incorporating trees in his farm system, and the economic constraints and costs he may face in doing so, are reviewed. Various economic considerations other than cash outlays and incomings, such as impact of risk, need to be taken into account. Issues are discussed that can arise in identifying, designing and implementing projects intended to help farmers to capture the economic potentials of agroforestry and to avoid or remove related economic impediments. Correct understanding of the factors which will affect the success of project interventions, valuation of the costs and benefits of trees as perceived by the farmer rather than by outsiders, distributional and equity issues, and identification of operational measures to ensure tangible short-term economic benefits are highlighted. The need for giving priority to research into the economic impacts of agroforestry practices on small farmer situations is stressed.     

What do farmers think? Farmer evaluations of hedgerow intercropping under semi-arid conditions

Results from farmer evaluations of exploratory on-farm trials with hedgerow inter-cropping in a semi-arid region of Kenya (the Yatta Plateau of Machakos District) are presented. Hedgerows ofCassia siamea, Gliricidia sepium andLeucaena leucocephala, which were managed by eight farmers to enhance soil fertility, were established in the mid-1980s. Although trial farmers appear convinced of the ability of the technology to increase crop yields, reduce erosion and provide firewood, most did not feel that the short-term risks (i.e. reduction in crop productivity) and the extra labour required were worth the long-term benefits. Hence, few of the eight farmers were willing to extend their hedges. The discussion suggests that in the risky production environment of the Yatta Plateau, where crop yields fluctuate constantly with the amount of rainfall, soil fertility is not of urgent concern to farmers. A participatory case study approach, which emphasizes farmers' opinions, preferences and ideas elicited through regular farmer evaluation exercises, as distinct from on-farm technology testing for validation, is recommended for on-farm research on new and complex agroforestry technologies. This approach permits between understanding of some of the complex socio-economic factors affecting the adoption of hedgerow intercropping and is the most cost-effective way to gather in-depth and contextual information on farmer decision-making and management of externally introduced agroforestry technologies.     

A Case Study Assessment of Agroforestry

Summary

Finding sustainable land-use systems within the Panama Canal Watershed will be necessary for future management by the Panamanian government. Agroforestry is a land-use option for small-scale farmers living within the Watershed that can help achieve the goals of both conservation and productivity. This case study qualitatively evaluates current agroforestry projects in the Canal Watershed using an analytical framework based on other evaluations of agroforestry systems in Central America. Designated criteria for the analysis include: management objectives, project life span, incentives, technology, economic feasibility, community involvement, and extension. These factors can present obstacles to wide-scale adoption of agroforestry systems by small-scale farmers, thus preventing the realization of associated benefits of agroforestry. The analysis of the three field sites visited in March 1998 is followed by recommendations for expanding agroforestry practices among farmers in the Watershed.     

The role of agroforestry in industrialized nations: the southern hemisphere perspective with special emphasis on Australia and New Zealand

Agroforestry in Australia and New Zealand is dominated by silvopastoralism. Farmers may employ combinations of shelterbelts, shade trees, widely spaced trees over pasture, or more densely planted woodlots. In addition to wood production and shelter, erosion control, amenity and landscape planting, and conservation of natural forest are often important. Many farm forestry people show considerable innovation.In temperate wetter areas of Australia, eucalyptus and, to a lesser extent,Pinus radiata (radiata pine) dominate agroforestry tree plantings for wood, shade, shelter, and salinisation and erosion prevention. The One Billion Tree Program, initiated by the Australian Federal Government, provides limited funding for tree planting. Joint farmer ventures with the State or local industry are also common. Most State governments also provide advice, and planting is tax deductible. Local landcare groups, formed to encourage sustainable agriculture, often promote tree planting, particularly where soil degradation is a problem. Melbourne University and other Techncial Institutes offer training in agroforestry.In New Zealand, a third of the farms require trees for soil conservation. This, together with the growing recognition of the financial benefits of planting trees, has resulted in small landowners doing most of the current planting of 80,000 to 100,000 ha yr^–1. Most farmers plant radiata pine, but eucalyptus and other hardwoods, including willows and poplars, are also widely used. There are almost no government incentives for tree planting in New Zealand. The Farm Forestry Association is the major extension organization. Lincoln University has an important teaching and research commitment, and the New Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited has developed very useful management models.     

Smallholder perceptions of agroforestry projects in Panama

The potential effects of agroforestry systems on conservation and development have been well documented. Panama has seen a substantial rise in the number of projects with an agroforestry component in the 1990s. There has been insufficient research on the actual impacts of these projects on smallholders and of farmers' attitudes towards these systems. This study explores the perceived socioeconomic and environmental impacts of five agroforestry projects in Panama. A total of 68 smallholders were administered semi-structured interviews. In addition, 13 agroforestry experts from NGOs, government departments and research institutes were interviewed, and their responses were compared with those of the smallholders. While the projects led to an increase in the standard of living by providing wood products and fruit for domestic consumption, farm income levels generally remained unchanged. This was due primarily to limited market development, the lack of marketing organizations and poor access roads. In terms of environmental impacts, the farmers' responses suggested a slight decline in slash-and-burn agriculture, and an increase in tree planting activities. Some environmental benefits were observed by farmers, including reduced soil erosion, increased soil fertility, and improved quality and quantity of water sources. Nevertheless, slash-and-burn agriculture was still the norm for the majority of farmers. Most farmers continued to harvest wood from primary and secondary growth to meet their domestic wood requirements, rather than relying on trees planted in agroforestry projects. The main obstacles preventing increased agroforestry adoption included insufficient agroforestry extension, inappropriate project design or management (such as top-down management approaches, and the use of food incentives), smallholders' economic constraints, and larger policy issues. Recommendations are proposed to improve project design and management, and to address the economic and policy constraints. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Negotiating a political path to agroforestry through the Conservation Security Program

Temperate agroforestry systems have faced obstacles to adoption despite their multiple environmental, economic, and social benefits. In part, these obstacles derive from the typically small scale of agroforestry systems relative to large-scale mainstream grain agriculture, which in the US is supported by strong commodity subsidies. One promising option for promoting agroforestry on a policy level, and thus for making it more appealing to landowners, is the Conservation Security Program (CSP), which provides payments to farmers for sustainable conservation practices on working lands. CSP was first passed in 2002 and has many supporters; however it has also faced opposition, delays in implementation and funding caps. CSP proponents have thus promoted its expansion in current and future Farm Bills. Since CSP is one part of the Farm Bill clearly suited to promoting agroforestry practices, supporters of agroforestry should consider joining coalitions around CSP to ensure that it includes explicit provisions for advancing agroforestry. In addition, CSP and agroforestry proponents alike should develop a strategic plan to market the expansion of CSP to policy makers. Specifically, a broad and strong coalition based on ideological common ground (e.g., attention to the notion of a family farmer) and on situational factors (e.g., potential international pressure from the World Trade Organization to reduce commodity subsidies) might be sufficient to push CSP into an expanded role in current and future Farm Bills.

Agroforestry — a last hope for conservation in Haiti?

Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere and one of the 25 poorest in the world. Its economy is marked by severe structural problems, and there is an extreme and widening gap between rich and poor. Per capita income in 1983 was US $315, and only about $50 in the countryside where many people live on the edge of starvation. Indices such as illiteracy, infant mortality and life expectancy are the worst in the hemisphere. Prolonged drought conditions since the mid-1970s have increased the country's external dependence, and much of the population depends on food aid.In the last few years several aid organizations have concentrated their efforts on reforestation programs with small farmers. Some programs are geared to production of fuelwood and timber as a source of cash income. Others propagate agroforestry as one possible solution to soil conservation and sustainable agriculture.Since 1983 the author has worked in Haiti as a technical consultant to local Caritas organizations working with many small groups of farmers engaged in agroforestry and soil conservation activities. The primary goal is to stop the process of hillside erosion, find new ways to prevent loss and degradation of agricultural land, make better use of rainwater, and promote self reliance in basic food crops.     

Technical efficiency in the spice based agroforestry sector in Matale district, Sri Lanka

Spices constitute an important sub-sector of the economy of Sri Lanka. Most perennial spices are cultivated in agroforestry types of farming systems. A field survey was conducted covering 127 agroforestry farmers in six divisional secretariats in Matale district during the period of October to December 2002. Technical efficiency of spice based agroforestry systems was estimated in order to identify the potential increase in production without incurring additional costs for farm inputs. The factors affecting technical efficiency and constraints and potential of the agroforestry system were also investigated. According to a stochastic frontier production function using a Cobb–Douglas model, hired labour, organic fertilizer, inorganic fertilizer, land size, and soil conservation measures showed significant positive effects on the agroforestry production. The mean technical efficiency of the spice based agroforestry systems was 84.32%. According to the inefficiency model the efficiency increased significantly as a result of farm visits by extension officers, participation in farmer training, less sloping lands, more experience, and higher diversity of the agroforestry system. Technical efficiency decreased, however, with higher education level of the farmer and with higher off-farm income. Unsustainability of the agroforestry system is seen as a result of a␣range of constraints related to productivity, market, technology and institutions.     

Livelihood Improvements Through Agroforestry: Evidence from Northern Bangladesh

Agroforestry is one of the most sustainable land management systems practiced around the world due to the socioeconomic benefits that it brings to farmers. In Bangladesh, farmers practice agroforestry, applying indigenous knowledge. The present study was designed to identify the present status, management practices and its role in improving the livelihoods of farmers in northern Bangladesh. Data for the study were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. A total of 29 tree and 38 agricultural crop species were planted by the102 farmers interviewed. Mangifera indica (relative prevalence 49%) is the most predominant species, followed by Eucalyptus camaldulensis (relative prevalence 35.4%). Farmers of northern Bangladesh plant trees in cropland for fruits (90%), fuel wood (87%) and timber production (79%). Fruit trees were planted with wider spacing while forest and fuel wood species were planted with narrower spacing. Farmer’s livelihoods improved enormously by practicing agroforestry as they have more access to food, fodder and fuel wood which is reflected by greater access to livelihood capitals (except social capital). However, farmers have experienced increased incidences of pests and diseases to the annual crops and trees. Agroforestry practices increases species diversity, ensure economic return and sustain farmer’s livelihoods.     

A knowledge-based expert system for planning and design of agroforestry systems

Computer-based Expert Systems that use knowledge, facts, and reasoning techniques to solve problems, normally requiring the abilities of human experts, are increasingly being used in many activities. The United Nations University (UNU) Agroforestry Expert System (AES) is a first attempt to apply this technique to agroforestry. UNU-AES is a prototype Knowledge-Based Expert System (KBES) designed to support land-use (agricultural, forestry, etc.) officials, research scientists, farmers, and individuals interested in maximizing benefits gained from applying agroforestry management techniques in developing countries. This prototype addresses the options for alley cropping, a promising agroforestry technology which has potential applicability when used under defined conditions in the tropics and subtropics. Alley cropping involves the planting of crops in alleys or interspaces between repeatedly pruned hedgerows of fast-growing, preferably leguminous, woody perennials. The primary benefits from this technique include nutrient enrichment, soil improvement, and erosion control. UNU-AES, which is the first known attempt at the application of expert system procedures in the field of agroforestry, uses a total of 235 decision rules to develop its recommendations. With the inclusion of more climatic and socio-economic data and improved advisory recommendations, UNU-AES can be expanded to provide advice on alley cropping in more diverse geographical and ecological conditions and eventually address other agroforestry techniques.     

Can farmer-to-farmer communication boost the dissemination of agroforestry innovations? A case study from Sulawesi,Indonesia

Research agencies generate a vast number of agroforestry innovations, many of which have significant potential to increase productivity and to improve livelihoods. However, the dissemination of information related to these innovations and their adoption rate remains low throughout Indonesia, particularly in areas with a low level of infrastructure development, such as in Sulawesi, Indonesia. In areas such as these, interpersonal communication between farmers (farmer-to-farmer interpersonal communication) is a significant means by which farmers obtain information related to agroforestry innovations that they may utilize to improve the productivity of their plots. Given the significance of this channel of communication, further investigation is merited to assess how it might be leveraged to improve the dissemination of information related to agroforestry innovations and how it can complement the use of other communication channels. Thus, this study was conducted to identify how farmer-to-farmer interpersonal communication is used and the extent to which it is a preferred means by which information related to agroforestry innovations is disseminated in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews involving 144 farmers (40 % female) from 12 villages in the provinces of South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Results show distinct differences in terms of farmers’ preferences for the various types of disseminators of information related to agroforestry innovations between provinces and genders. It was found that farmers play a significant role as reliable disseminators of information related to agroforestry innovations to a greater extent in areas where farmer’s access to government extension agents is limited and where language barriers act as a constraint to the dissemination of information by these agents. Farmer-to-farmer communication is not the only communication channel for the dissemination of the information, but it is preferred by farmers who only speak local languages. Thus, to enhance the dissemination rate of agroforestry innovations, farmer-to-farmer communication channels should be utilized to complement the use of other channels. In areas where farmer-to-farmer communication channels are preferred, deliberate measures to improve expert farmers’ and opinion leaders’ access to information related to agricultural and agroforestry innovations will facilitate the effective dissemination of this information amongst a greater number of farmers.     

Farmers’ reasoning behind the uptake of agroforestry practices: evidence from multiple case-studies across Europe

Potential benefits and costs of agroforestry practices have been analysed by experts, but few studies have captured farmers’ perspectives on why agroforestry might be adopted on a European scale. This study provides answers to this question, through an analysis of 183 farmer interviews in 14 case study systems in eight European countries. The study systems included high natural and cultural value agroforestry systems, silvoarable systems, high value tree systems, and silvopasture systems, as well as systems where no agroforestry practices were occurring. A mixed method approach combining quantitative and qualitative approaches was taken throughout the interviews. Narrative thematic data analysis was performed. Data collection proceeded until no new themes emerged. Within a given case study, i.e. the different systems in different European regions, this sampling was performed both for farmers who practice agroforestry and farmers who did not. Results point to a great diversity of agroforestry practices, although many of the farmers are not aware of the term or concept of agroforestry, despite implementing the practice in their own farms. While only a few farmers mentioned eligibility for direct payments in the CAP as the main reason to remove trees from their land, to avoid the reduction of the funded area, the tradition in the family or the region, learning from others, and increasing the diversification of products play the most important role in adopting or not agroforestry systems.     

Small-scale agroforestry for upland community development: a case study from Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phenomena, cost–benefit analysis, and possible impact upon poverty reduction. There have been inadequate studies on the actual impacts of agroforestry intervention on small landholders and of farmers' attitudes toward these agroforestry programs. Drawing upon the findings of an empirical study, this article explores the effects of small-scale agroforestry on upland community development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. More specifically, the study clarifies the merits and demerits of different agroforestry systems as perceived by farmers, their impacts on the rural economy and the environment, farmers' attitudes toward the adoption of agroforestry, and impacts of various government policies. Field data were collected by administering questions to 90 randomly selected smallholders of the Upland Settlement Project (USP), as well as from project staff. The research tools employed were semistructured interviews, group discussions, and uncontrolled observations. The results indicated that the agroforestry interventions have in fact increased farmers' income through employment and the selling of farm products, as well as by improving the ecological conditions of these areas through reduction of soil erosion, increasing tree coverage, and maintaining soil fertility. The adoption of different agroforestry systems was governed mainly by the farmers' interests in following these techniques, their ability to cultivate the land in the prescribed manner, and the market demand for their products. The major obstacles that prevented increased agroforestry improvements included lack of confidence in new land-use systems, inappropriate project design (e.g., top-down innovation approach), and policy issues regarding land tenure. Recommendations are proposed to strengthen social capital in local organizations to enhance the livelihoods of the upland communities.     

Do socio-psychological factors matter in agroforestry planning? Lessons from smallholder traditional agroforestry systems

Most of the well planned rural development forestry programs of the 1970s, and agroforestry in particular, were either not adopted by the intended beneficiaries or failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the rural people, particularly in the developing countries. The reasons for non-adoption in some cases appear to be technical, bio-physical, social and economic (termed as rational reasons by the planners), but in other situations the reasons are not so easily recognisable and comprehended (termed irrational reasons). These irrational reasons are the perceptions and attitude of the farmer towards farm practices, and their role in agroforestry planning has remained almost completely neglected. The present study is based on a household survey of the farmers in traditional agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya and investigates the importance of perceptional and attitudinal aspects of the farmers with regard to agroforestry adoption and extension. In the present study, farmers’ perceptions of restrictions on felling of trees from their own land and attitudes towards agroforestry were the most important sociopsychological factors which influenced tree growing. This study implies a need to take into account the socio-psychological factors of the farmers for planning socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The importance of study of various de jure rules and regulations controlling the use of on-farm tree resources and related exemptions and their association with farmers’ perceptions and tree growing is highlighted to develop policies to encourage tree growing in agroforestry.     

Conservation farming practices for small reservoir watersheds: a case study from Sri Lanka

Traditional agricultural villages in the dry zone of Sri Lanka are minor watersheds where small earth bank reservoirs provide water for irrigation and domestic purposes. The farmers practise rainfed farming on a shifting basis called chena in the reservoir catchments, which are being degraded due to soil erosion. The consequent sedimentation in reservoirs has reduced the extent of irrigation, and the total farming system has lost its ecological balance and economic sustenance. The present study aimed at identifying suitable farming methods for reservoir catchments in order to prevent further deterioration.The investigation was carried out on plot basis to assess soil loss and runoff from forest, scrub and cultivated lands as well as from four other types of farming lands namely plough-farming, bund-farming and two conservation farming practices: strip mulch and graded hedgerow farming. In graded hedgerow farming hedgerow trees are planted across the slope with a mild gradient of 0.4–0.5%. The study was carried out in a reservoir watershed at Maha Illuppallama, Sri Lanka during 1989/90 major rainy season.Results indicated that the two conservation farming practices generate 33–34% annual runoff while replenishing soil moisture of the watershed. Soil loss data showed that the conservation farming practices provide more than 80% protection against soil erosion while bunding can provide only 40% protection compared to existing shifting cultivation practices.     

Coffee Agroforestry Systems for Conservation and Economic Development

Abstract

The agroforestry program of the AMISCONDE Initiative was implemented in 13 buffer zone communities of La Amistad Biosphere Reserve. This program introduced citrus (Citrus spp.) and promoted the widespread inclusion of poró (Erythrina poeppigiana) shade trees, ground story vegetation, and soil conservation techniques to the local cultivation of coffee (Coffea arabica var caturra). This program sought long-term socioeconomic and ecological health in these buffer zone communities through conservation and development projects such as coffee agroforestry systems. This paper examines the ecological and socioeconomic benefits of two introduced coffee agroforestry systems: coffee-poró and coffee-citrus. The project has decreased agrochemical inputs, integrated multi-strata vegetation, and implemented soil conservation techniques such as vetiver grass, cover crops, terraces, water channeling, and shade trees in an effort to sustainably manage coffee production on the steep buffer zone slopes. The agroforestry project of the AMISCONDE Initiative has likely improved the production of coffee ecologically and economically. However, new specialty markets should be explored to increase economic and ecological gains. Organic and fair trade coffee niche markets are suggested as alternatives for meeting the long-term AMISCONDE objectives of community development and conservation.     

Psychological Factors Influencing Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Agroforestry: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

ABSTRACT

The biophysical characteristics of the farm and farmers’ socioeconomic factors have been used to explain adoption of technologies in Africa. However, agricultural technology adoption requires that we also understand the psychological factors that can encourage or discourage farmer adoption of technologies. The aim of this article is to assess the psychological drivers of farmers’ intentions to adopt agroforestry technologies on their farms. We obtained data from 400 smallholder farmers in the Mt. Elgon region of Uganda. The Theory of Planned Behavior was used as the main framework. Quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to assess the impact of a set of psychological factors on farmers’ intention to integrate trees in coffee. The intention of farmers to integrate trees in coffee plantations was mainly driven by their evaluation of the benefits of shaded coffee (attitude) followed by beliefs about their own capability (perceived behavioral control). However, social pressure (subjective norm) was insignificant, implying that smallholder farmers tend to deny the influence of other people’s behavior on their actions. Therefore, farmers’ positive evaluation of shading coffee and the perceived capability to overcome tree planting barriers reinforced their intention to integrate trees in coffee. This renders attitude and perceived behavioral control as reliable predictors of farmer tree planting behavior, especially in the context of developing countries.     

Agroforestry in the management of sloping lands in Asia and the Pacific

Steeply sloping lands are widespread in the tropics. An estimated 500 million people practice subsistence agriculture in these marginal areas. Continued population growth has led to the intensified cultivation of large areas of the sloping lands, exacerbating the problem of soil erosion. Although research shows that alley cropping and other contour agroforestry systems can stabilize the sloping lands, these systems have not been widely adopted by farmers. The Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) has been tested in sloping land areas in the Philippines. Sustainable land management must be productive, stable, viable, and acceptable to farmers, while protecting soil and water resources. Farms on which contour hedgerow intercropping has been adopted meet the multifaceted requirements of FESLM, whereas the farmers' current practice does not. Appropriate land management measures for particular locations depend on a complex suite of social, economic, and biophysical factors, and need to be developed in participation with farmers. The role of agroforestry in sustainable management of sloping lands is the subject of networks coordinated by the International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM) in seven countries in Asia (ASIALAND) and four countries in the Pacific (PACIFICLAND). We review selected outcomes from a wealth of network data. From these results the following conclusions about the sustainability of various agroforestry systems for sloping lands can be drawn: • In the Pacific, soil loss from sloping lands due to water erosion under farmers' current practices is episodic, unpredictable, and possibly not severe; • Agroforestry systems that utilize legume shrubs, fruit trees, coffee (Coffea spp.) or rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) provide useful economic returns, but are not an essential component in terms of soil protection because grass or pineapple (Ananas comosus) planted on the contour are equally effective in reducing erosion; • Agricultural intensification will lead to nutrient mining, reduction of aboveground biomass, declining yields, and less soil protection unless external sources of nutrients are used; • nitrogen can be effectively supplied using legumes; • Cash derived from hedgerow trees and/or shrubs may providean incentive for their adoption by farmers, as well as funds to purchase external inputs such as fertilizers; • Labor may be a major constraint to the adoption of complex agroforestry systems. We also discuss the information management systems required to effectively manage and utilize the extensive sets of experimental and indigenous data being accumulated. We believe such information systems can facilitate technology transfer across and between regions, and improve the efficiency of research into agroforestry and other land-management approaches. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Nitrogen-Fixing Trees in Small-Scale Agriculture of Mountainous Southeast Guatemala

Abstract

Intensive, subsistence agriculture on hillsides of southeast Guatemala has caused extensive soil degradation. This retrospective study evaluated the success of an agroforestry treatment in improving the sustainability of mountainous agricultural systems in terms of soil nutrient status and erosion control. Three years after maize (Zea mays) and pasture fields were alley-cropped with N-fixing Gliricidia sepium trees, soil nutrient levels were examined and compared to nonalley-cropped controls. Agroforestry treatment showed significantly higher soil organic matter (SOM) over paired plots with no alley-cropping (mean 4.3% vs. 3.2% C, p < 0.05). Mean total N was also higher, with 0.12% in the nonagro-forestry control plots compared to 0.16% underthe agroforestry treatment (p <0.05). Some improvement in soil water-holding capacity(WHC) was also observed in the agroforestry systems. Differences in soil levels of available P, ranging from 8.0 to 64.4 μg/g, were not significant and correlated more with site than with agroforestry treatment versus control. Specific soil and site properties such as texture and slope as well as land use and ground cover management largely influenced improvements in soil nutrient status under the agroforestry treatment at each site. Despite increases in soil nutrients, maize plant productivity showed no response to the agroforestry treatment in terms of leaf chlorophyll index or maize plant height. Three years after the initiation of agroforestry, soil erosion rates showed no difference from paired controls; rates were correlated with ground cover and soil characteristics such as texture and surface rockiness rather than with agroforestry treatment. While soil nutrient status had not reached levels optimum for maize growth after three years, the positive trajectory of change in soil nutrients suggests the potential for using agroforestry systems in mountainous regions of Guatemala to increase the sustainability of agricultural production.