基于网络零售平台的激励合同研究

基于网络零售平台的直销模式已成为电子零售的一种新模式。在该模式下,制造商借助电子零售商的网络平台发布产品信息(价格、交货期等)并负责产品的销售。电子零售商仅提供其网络平台并收取相应费用。基于此直销模式,针对终端消费者对产品的交货期支付意愿异质性且信息私有的特点,分析了制造商的最优激励合同(价格和交货时间的设定)和电子零售商的最佳收益分享比例。借助数值仿真,讨论了私有的支付意愿信息和成本等因素对最优决策和利润的影响。     

不同双渠道结构下制造商的定价决策与渠道选择

根据网上渠道不同销售模式的特征将其划分为网上直销双渠道、网上分销双渠道和网上代销双渠道。分析在制造商主导的双渠道供应链中，三种不同双渠道结构下价格竞争系数、网上直销成本和佣金比例系数对其他经济变量的影响，以及制造商的最优定价决策与渠道选择问题。研究表明：制造商在保证一定网上直销单位成本和佣金比例系数条件下，网上代销双渠道和网上直销双渠道中获取的利润高于网上分销双渠道；在网络代销双渠道中，制造商利润随着佣金比例系数增加而减少，而传统零售商和网络零售商的利润会随着佣金比例系数增加而增加。     

基于交叉销售的竞争供应链纵向契约研究

考虑市场上存在两个竞争性制造商和两个竞争性零售商,且每个制造商都由两个共同的零售商来分销产品,进而形成交叉销售的竞争供应链模型.研究该模型下制造商契约选择的动态演化过程.分析收益分享契约同时实现制造商与零售商利润改进的条件.结果显示:制造商的契约选择严重依赖于产品间的竞争强度,零售商间竞争强度只起到催化剂的作用.当产品间的竞争较弱,收益分享比例设置在合适范围内时,制造商由最初的批发价契约转化为收益分享契约,且此时收益分享契约为占优策略.否则,两者将因为收益分享比例无法达成一致,被迫以批发价契约进行交易.     

零售商信息禀赋优势下制造商电商直销渠道决策

在供应链中由于零售商相比制造商掌握更多消费者信息,能够对市场需求进行预测,因此制造商在建立直销渠道决策时往往面临着市场需求信息的不对称。本文考虑一个由单个制造商和单个零售商组成的供应链,其中零售商向制造商订购产品并销售给终端市场,制造商可能建立直销渠道将产品直接销售给消费者。通过构建制造商无入侵、对称信息下和不对称信息下制造商入侵三种情形下的博弈模型,本文分析了制造商建立直销渠道决策和零售商的订货决策。研究发现,尽管零售商具有信息禀赋优势,制造商建立直销渠道总是能够获得更多的利润,并且在信息不对称情况下制造商建立直销渠道获得的利润大于在信息对称情况下获得的利润。而零售商与之相反,在制造商掌握市场预测信息的情况下零售商的收益更高,供应链总收益在对称信息的情况下最高。进一步考虑制造商按照自身信息禀赋进行备货量决策的情况,可以得到按照自身信息禀赋与零售商同时决策时制造商建立直销渠道的利润大于信息对称和信息不对称两种情况下的利润。     

网络环境下考虑动态定价的渠道协调问题研究

在一个制造商和一个在线零售商构成的供应链中,制造商委托在线零售商销售产品,确定价格和生产数量,零售商确定收益分享比例.本文假定制造商动态定价,研究了上述供应链的协调问题,研究发现:动态定价不能影响收益分享比例,但会提高供应链整体的利润;收益分享合同不能达到供应链协调;收益分享合同与返利合同的组合能够实现供应链协调.最后用算例说明了动态定价对供应链的影响.     

基于改进收益共享契约的双渠道供应链协调研究

在需求具有价格敏感性条件下,结合双渠道供应链的特点,研究了双渠道供应链中的两种协调方式,即传统分销渠道与电子直销渠道之间的协调及上下游节点之间的协调。首先,制造商将电子直销渠道所得收益按一定比例分享给零售商。其次,制造商提供给零售商一个较低的批发价格,而零售商将其在传统分销渠道的收益按一定比例分享给制造商作为补偿。从而构建了能够实现双渠道供应链协调的收益共享契约模型,给出了实现双渠道供应链协调时,契约参数取值范围的计算公式,并进一步探讨了双渠道供应链完美共赢协调存在的条件。最后通过算例分析,验证了所设计的收益共享契约模型对双渠道供应链协调的有效性。     

预测信息分享对制造商开通直销渠道的影响

研究了零售商预测信息分享对制造商渠道结构选择的影响.运用不完全信息动态博弈分别建立了单渠道和双渠道供应链决策模型,得到了贝叶斯均衡的渠道价格和各方最优期望利润.研究发现当零售商的需求预测精度比较低时,制造商应当开通直销渠道.零售商没有动机将预测信息与制造商分享.设计了一个信息分享补偿机制使得零售商能自愿分享其私有信息.在信息分享补偿机制下,虽然制造商为获取零售商预测信息付出了成本,但是依然有动机开通直销渠道.     

联合促销下双渠道VMI供应链的竞争与协调

本文在双渠道VMI供应链中,假设制造商和零售商分别处于领导者和追随者的地位,考虑了制造商通过联合促销协调供应链上下游的策略以及双渠道需求之间的搭便车效应,以此为背景建立了制造商和零售商之间的Stackelberg博弈模型,并通过拉格朗日乘数法求解出了制造商的最优发货策略和零售商的最优定价与促销策略。研究发现制造商开辟网上渠道直销产品后,零售商缺货时间比例增大。进一步研究发现,制造商承担促销成本的比例,双渠道之间的搭便车效应对供应链成员的决策和利润有显著影响。另外,双渠道的需求越不稳定,则制造商开辟网上销售渠道后获利越高,同时零售商的利润越低。最后,通过算例验证了模型的有效性并对模型中主要参数进行了灵敏度分析。     

多产品竞争环境中最优供货决策

在有多产品竞争的市场中,产品零售商首先需要了解每个产品在市场中的地位和市场份额,然后通过了解市场需求总量和销售支出情况来决定产品的供应数量,以达到利润的最大化的目标.怎样得到最优的供货量问题是现代库存管理的基础性问题之一.通过引进产品特征描述和消费者一般支出的概念,给出一种市场份额的分析方法和市场份额的一些数学性质及经济特点.然后引入管理中经典库存决策模型———“报童问题”模型,分析多产品竞争环境中零售商的最优供货决策问题.最后研究了在产品的某些特征描述改变的条件下,零售商最优供货量、期望利润和市场利润总量的敏感性分析及其经济含义解释.     

开放引入还是放任不管？平台商应对制造商渠道入侵的策略研究

本研究探讨了由一个在位制造商、一个入侵制造商和一个平台零售商组成的供应链中,不同博弈顺序结构下平台零售商对入侵制造商的开放引入策略;研究了产品质量、直销成本和利润分享系数对平台零售商策略选择的影响;阐述了平台零售商开放引入策略同制造商渠道入侵的交互作用。研究发现：（1）入侵制造商建立直销渠道进入市场一定会损害在位制造商利益,但并不一定损害平台零售商利益,某些情况下甚至会对平台零售商有益;（2）入侵制造商提升产品质量并不意味着能够卖出一个更高的批发价格,且提高产品质量也并不总能使其获得更多收益;（3）当直销成本较低时,入侵制造商总会选择自建直销渠道的方式进入零售市场;（4）平台零售商在特定情形下可以利用开放引入策略有效阻止制造商的渠道入侵行为。     

Introduction to Special Section on Sensitivity Analysis and Summary of NCSU/USDA Workshop on Sensitivity Analysis

This guest editorial is a summary of the NCSU/USDA Workshop on Sensitivity Analysis held June 11–12, 2001 at North Carolina State University and sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Office of Risk Assessment and Cost Benefit Analysis. The objective of the workshop was to learn across disciplines in identifying, evaluating, and recommending sensitivity analysis methods and practices for application to food‐safety process risk models. The workshop included presentations regarding the Hazard Assessment and Critical Control Points (HACCP) framework used in food‐safety risk assessment, a survey of sensitivity analysis methods, invited white papers on sensitivity analysis, and invited case studies regarding risk assessment of microbial pathogens in food. Based on the sharing of interdisciplinary information represented by the presentations, the workshop participants, divided into breakout sessions, responded to three trigger questions: What are the key criteria for sensitivity analysis methods applied to food‐safety risk assessment? What sensitivity analysis methods are most promising for application to food safety and risk assessment? and What are the key needs for implementation and demonstration of such methods? The workshop produced agreement regarding key criteria for sensitivity analysis methods and the need to use two or more methods to try to obtain robust insights. Recommendations were made regarding a guideline document to assist practitioners in selecting, applying, interpreting, and reporting the results of sensitivity analysis.     

Distinguishing traumatic, vicarious and routine operational stressor exposure and attendant adverse consequences in a sample of police officers

Problems in studying occupational stress within the police service are identified and the paucity of work on operational duties as potential stressors are discussed. The present study reports the results of a factor analysis of operational stressors (N = 601 serving British police officers) that revealed three factors: exposure to death and disaster; violence and injury; sexual crime. These were demonstrated to be reliable scales and were included in logistic regression models together with a range of demographic and psychological variables. Models were applied to men and women separately, which showed there to be different predictors of the likelihood of suffering distress (measured by the General Health Questionnaire, GHQ) in terms of the officer's gender and operational role. Overall the model for women officers was better at predicting psychological distress than that for men. These findings are related to aspects of the police occupational culture. Further discussion is offered that conceptualizes police operational stressors as traumatic, routine and vicarious. Finally, some implications are drawn for the provision of stress intervention in the light of this differentiation.     

Power,authority and legitimacy

Management, human resources, organization, control, leadership, etc., all seem to be just so many euphemisms for power, and this suggests a discourse of management and organization that calls things by their proper name. This paper on the contrary stresses the need to resolve the concept of ‘power’ itself into more differentiated notions, and proposes that clarification may be derived from distinctions once explicit in the vocabulary of Classical antiquity, but lost in modern European languages. It argues that nothing but confusion in thinking about organizations, management and legitimation can result from the failure to recognize that the phenomena this vocabulary identifies and distinguishes are irreducibly different.     

Employees' perceptions of organizational restructuring: the role of social support

Organizational change and restructuring is often perceived as leading to increased occupational stress, impacting negatively on the psychological well-being of employees. This pragmatic study investigates the role of social support and dispositional affect as moderators of role stress post-restructuring for employees in a public utility company. A total of 176 employees, including 37 managers, 60 graded staff and 78 industrial staff completed a self-report questionnaire, approximately 1 year postrestructuring, retrospectively assessing role conflict, ambiguity, overload and positive and negative feedback pre- and post-restructuring. Results suggested that overall role stress increased for managers/ senior officers and graded staff, but not for industrial staff. Social support was linked with lower role stress, more positive feedback and less negative feedback at post-restructuring. For certain role stressors this impact was moderated by dispositional affect, but the effect was not consistent across occupational groups. Positive affect enhanced the effect of manager support in reducing role conflict for graded staff, and the effect of co-worker support in increasing positive feedback and reducing negative feedback for industrial staff. Findings suggest that managers should pay particular attention to support and feedback for employees during periods of chronic occupational stress following organizational restructuring.     

The Danish psychosocial work environment and symptoms of stress: the main, mediating and moderating role of sense of coherence

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore the main, mediating and moderating role of sense of coherence (SOC) on stress symptoms and on the association between perceived psychosocial work environment and stress symptoms. The sample includes 2053 Danish employees from 52 workplaces. Hierarchical regression models were applied for each measure of stress. The results strongly supported the presence of a main effect for SOC. People with high levels of SOC experienced fewer stress symptoms. A mediating effect of SOC was also supported. Thus, SOC in part explained the association between work environment and stress symptoms. In addition, some support for a moderating effect of SOC was found, suggesting that people with higher SOC coped more efficiently with work environmental strain that people with lower SOC. Taken together the regression models explained 11-32% of the variance in stress symptoms. The results suggest that measures of individual factors such as SOC should be included in analyses of the effects of work environmental factors on stress and well-being.     

Control at work: a generalized resource factor for the prevention of musculoskeletal symptoms?

During the last two decades two potent groups of predictors for work-related musculoskeletal problems have been identified: physical work load and poor psychosocial working conditions. However, little is known about their combined effects. In this study the buffering effect of control at work with respect to the negative effects of psychological demands and physical work load on musculoskeletal problems is examined. All study variables were sampled from 431 people working in geriatric nursing homes in Germany by means of questionnaires. Main effects and interactions were tested with multiple regression analysis. The results showed that control buffered the effects of high psychological demands, but not of high physical work load; the buffering effect of control was observed only when physical work load was low. The combined effects of demands and physical work load were over-additive. Thus, the power of different predictors for musculoskeletal symptoms depended on the level of other predictors. This suggests that the efficiency of certain strategies for the prevention of musculoskeletal problems is likely to depend on the level of risk factors, with different strategies being appropriate for different levels of risk.     

The moderating role of social support in Karasek's job strain model

This paper examines whether social support is a boundary-determining criterion in the job strain model of Karasek (1979). The particular focus is the extent to which different sources of social support, work overload and task control influence job satisfaction, depersonalization and supervisor assessments of work performance. Hypotheses are tested using prospective survey data from 80 clerical staff in a university setting. Results revealed 3-way interactions among levels of support (supervisor, co-worker, non-work), perceived task control and work overload on levels of work performance and employee adjustment (self-report). After controlling for levels of negative affect in all analyses, there was evidence that high levels of supervisor support mitigated against the negative effects of high strain jobs on levels of job satisfaction and reduced reported levels of depersonalization. Moreover, high levels of non-work support and co-worker support also mitigated against the negative effects of high strain jobs on levels of work performance. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of social support networks both at, and beyond, the work context.     

Job insecurity, coping resources and personality dispositions in occupational strain

This paper presents research on the relationships between the work-related stressor of perceived job insecurity and various indicators of occupational strain, taking into account employees' personality dispositions (trait negative and positive affectivity) and coping resources. Respondents were 222 Australian public servants surveyed during organizational restructuring that involved downsizing and threat to job certainty. The research was formulated within an adaptation of Osipow, Doty, and Spokane's (1985) framework of stress-strain-coping that included the possible direct as well as moderating effects of personality dispositions in reporting occupational strain (Parkes, 1990). Findings from hierarchical regression analyses indicate consistent significant independent effects of personality dispositions, coping resources and perceived job insecurity on various indicators of strain. There was also support for the moderating roles of negative affectivity and self-care in the relation between perceived job insecurity and physical strain. Implications for the role of dispositional factors, especially negative affectivity, and the utility of various coping resources in accounting for occupational strain in times of threatened job security are discussed.     

Comparison of Chemical Screening and Ranking Approaches: The Waste Minimization Prioritization Tool versus Toxic Equivalency Potentials

Chemical screening in the United States is often conducted using scoring and ranking methodologies. Linked models accounting for chemical fate, exposure, and toxicological effects are generally preferred in Europe and in product Life Cycle Assessment. For the first time, a comparison is presented in this article of two of the prominent, but structurally different methodologies adopted to help screen and rank chemicals and chemical emissions data. Results for 250 chemicals are presented, with a focus on 12 chemicals of interest in the United Nations Environment Programme's Persistent Organic Pollutants global treaty negotiations. These results help to illustrate the significance of described structural differences and to assess the correlation between the methodologies. The scope of the comparison was restricted here to human health, although the insights would be equally useful in the context of the health of ecosystems. Illustrating the current types of chemical screening and emissions comparison approaches, the relative significance of the scenario and structural differences of the Waste Minimization Prioritization Tool (WMPT) and the Toxic Equivalency Potential (TEP) methodologies are analyzed. The WMPT facilitates comparison in terms of key physical-chemical properties. Measures for Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Toxicity (PBT) are calculated. Each PBT measure is scored and then these scores are added to provide a single measure of relative concern. TEPs account for chemical fate, multipathway exposure, and toxicity using a model-based approach. This model structure is sometimes considered to provide a less subjective representation of environmental mechanisms, and, hence, an improved basis for screening. Nevertheless, a strong relationship exists between the two approaches and both have their limitations.