Overview of Impacts of Climate Change and Adaptation in China's Agriculture

The purpose of this paper is to document the likely impacts of climate change on China’s agriculture and the current adaptation efforts made by government and farmers.The review of literature shows that climate change will have a significant impact on agriculture,primarily through its effect on crop yields.The extent of predicted impacts highly depends on the crop,the CO2 fertilization effect assumption and adaptation abilities.Market response to the production shocks resulting from climate change will lessen the impacts on agricultural production predicted by natural scientists.On adaptation,the government’s major efforts have been in the developing new technologies,reforming extension system and enhancing institutional capacity.Farmers do adapt to climate change,but their adaptation measures cannot fully offset the negative impacts of climate change.The paper concludes and makes implications for future studies.     

Climate change and Chinese farmers: Perceptions and determinants of adaptive strategies

Farmers' perceptions, beliefs, adaptive strategies, and barriers regarding climate change are critical to promoting sustainable ecosystems and societal stability. This paper is based on an extensive survey of 1 500 farmers and their households in Henan Province in China during 2013–2014. Henan is the largest agricultural province in China with over 51 million farmers. The survey results showed that approximately 57% of the respondents perceived the direct impact of climate change during the past 10 years, with 70.3% believing that climate change posed a risk to their livelihood. Not surprisingly, most farmers reported that they have adopted new measures to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. The main barriers hindering farmers' adopting adaptation measures were lack of funds and timely information. A multinomial logit model revealed that land ownership, knowledge of crop variety and the causes of climate change, as well as the belief of climate change, were all positively related to the likelihood of employing adaptive strategies. Moreover, the percentage of households engaging in agriculture activity, and years of engaging in farming were both negatively correlated with famer's likelihood of adopting adaptation strategies. More importantly, farmers with high incomes were less likely to adopt adaptive strategies and more willing to engage in other business activities. In conclusion, it is important to communicate climate change related information and government policies in rural areas, promote farmer associations and other educational outreach efforts to assist Chinese farmers to deal with climate change.     

农户与政府气候变化认知及适应措施比较研究——以河南省为例

基于河南省314家麦农和30个基层政府部门55名工作人员的实地调研数据,对农户和政府的气候变化认知与适应措施进行比较研究。结果显示,麦农和基层政府对气候变化及其对农业生产的影响具有较高的认知度。其中,对于气候系统的变化,麦农的认知度高于基层政府;对于气候变化的具体表现和气候变化对农业生产的影响,麦农的认知度低于基层政府。研究还发现,麦农和基层政府对气候变化适应措施的选择偏好不同。超过80%的小麦种植户采取了气候变化适应措施,但主要是增加农药化肥投入和增加灌溉等被动性适应措施,基层政府倾向选择营造农田防护林和推广农作物新品种等主动性适应措施。对于气候变化适应的政策支持,加强气候变化相关的教育和培训、推荐农作物新品种、暴雨和干旱预警是麦农和基层政府的共同选择。     

气候变化下的农户适应性行为及其对粮食单产的影响

为探究农户适应性行为及其对农业产出的影响效应,基于河北、河南省等地粮食种植户的调查数据,采取处理效应模型,实证分析农户气候变化适应性行为对粮食单产的影响。研究表明:1)面对气候变化及其影响,近80%的农户会采取应对措施,而且农户倾向于采用成本较低的措施。2)农户是否采取适应性措施的行为决策受到内、外部因素的影响,气温、降水总量对农户适应性行为分别具有显著的正向和负向影响,种植面积对农户适应性行为具有积极影响。3)农户采取适应性措施对粮食单产具有显著正向影响,与不具有适应性行为的农户相比,采取措施农户的粮食单产更高。     

气候变化对中国农业生产的可能影响及适应对策

近100年来,全球地表温度呈不断升高的趋势,且这种趋势还将继续。全球气候变暖已经对许多自然系统和生物系统产生了可辨别的影响。农业是最脆弱的生态系统之一,受气候变化的影响也最直接。由于气候变化使农业气候资源发生变化,从而直接影响到农业种植结构、作物品种布局以及作物产量。综述了近年来气候变化对农作物产量、农业气候资源以及我国农业种植制度和作物品种布局影响的研究成果,并针对未来气候变化提出农业适应措施以及选择措施时应注意的一些问题。     

Interpretation of Climate Change and Agricultural Adaptations by Local Household Farmers: a Case Study at Bin County,Northeast China

Although climate change impacts and agricultural adaptations have been studied extensively, how smallholder farmers perceive climate change and adapt their agricultural activities is poorly understood. Survey-based data (presents farmers' personal perceptions and adaptations to climate change) associated with external biophysical-socioeconomic data (presents real-world climate change) were used to develop a farmer-centered framework to explore climate change impacts and agricultural adaptations at a local level. A case study at Bin County (1980s–2010s), Northeast China, suggested that increased annual average temperature (0.6°C per decade) and decreased annual precipitation (46 mm per decade, both from meteorological datasets) were correctly perceived by 76 and 66.9%, respectively, of farmers from the survey, and that a longer growing season was confirmed by 70% of them. These reasonably correct perceptions enabled local farmers to make appropriate adaptations to cope with climate change: Longer season alternative varieties were found for maize and rice, which led to a significant yield increase for both crops. The longer season also affected crop choice: More farmers selected maize instead of soybean, as implicated from survey results by a large increase in the maize growing area. Comparing warming-related factors, we found that precipitation and agricultural disasters were the least likely causes for farmers' agricultural decisions. As a result, crop and variety selection, rather than disaster prevention and infrastructure improvement, was the most common ways for farmers to adapt to the notable warming trend in the study region.     

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON CROP PRODUCTION,PESTS AND PATHOGENS OF WHEAT AND RICE

● An overview of impacts of climate change on wheat and rice crops. ● A review on impacts of climate change on insect pests and fungal pathogens of wheat and rice. ● A selection of adaptation strategies to mitigate impacts of climate change on crop production and pest and disease management. Ongoing climate change is expected to have impacts on crops, insect pests, and plant pathogens and poses considerable threats to sustainable food security. Existing reviews have summarized impacts of a changing climate on agriculture, but the majority of these are presented from an ecological point of view, and scant information is available on specific species in agricultural applications. This paper provides an overview of impacts of climate change on two staple crops, wheat and rice. First, the direct effects of climate change on crop growth, yield formation, and geographic distribution of wheat and rice are reviewed. Then, the effects of climate change on pests and pathogens related with wheat and rice, and their interactions with the crops are summarized. Finally, potential management strategies to mitigate the direct impacts of climate change on crops, and the indirect impacts on crops through pests and pathogens are outlined. The present overview aims to aid agriculture practitioners and researchers who are interested in wheat and rice to better understand climate change related impacts on the target species.     

Factors influencing hybrid maize farmers' risk attitudes and their perceptions in Punjab Province,Pakistan

Hybrid maize farmers have to face diverse kinds of climate, biological, price and financial risks. Farmers' risk perceptions and risk attitudes are essential elements influencing farm operations and management decisions. However, this important issue has been overlooked in the contemporary studies and therefore there is a dearth of literature on this important issue. The present research is therefore, an attempt to fill this gap. This study aims to quantify hybrid maize farmers' perceptions of disastrous risks, their attitudes towards risk and to explore the impacts of various farm and farm household factors on farmers' risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The present study is conducted in four hybrid maize growing districts of Punjab Province, Pakistan, using cross-sectional data of 400 hybrid maize farmers. Risk matrix and equally likely certainty equivalent (ELCE) method are used to rank farmers' perceptions of four catastrophic risk sources including climate, biological, price and financial risks and to investigate farmers' risk aversion attitudes, respectively. Furthermore, probit regression is used to analyze the determinants affecting farmers' risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The results of the study showed that majority of farmers are risk averse in nature and perceive price, biological and climate to be potential sources of risks to their farm enterprise. In addition, analysis divulges that distance from farm to main market, off-farm income, location dummies for Sahiwal and Okara, age, maize farming experience, access to extension agent, significantly (either negatively or positively) influence farmers' risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The study delivers valuable insights for farmers, agricultural insurance sector, extension services researchers and agricultural policy makers about the local understanding of risks to hybrid maize crop in developing countries, like Pakistan, and have implications for research on farmers' adaptation to exposed risks.     

中国农业应对气候变化关键技术研究进展及发展方向

应对频发的极端天气气候灾害,是全球和中国农业可持续发展研究中的重要议题。中国农业在应对气候变化中采取了积极政策和科学措施,在保障粮食九连增和国民经济持续高速发展方面做出了重要贡献。本文通过对气候变化在中国农业影响事实进行了具体分析,对“十一五”期间国家科技支撑计划农业领域等有关项目在适应和减缓气候变化方面的主要研究进展和成果进行了总结和分析。结果表明,气候变化对农业发展带来机遇与挑战并存,中国研制和推行的减缓和适应气候变化关键技术发挥了不同程度的作用,并相继建立了气候变化对中国农业影响评估模型和方法,指明了今后中国农业应对气候变化科技发展的方向。     

应对气候变化对未来中国农业生产影响的问题和挑战

通过整合农业科学界从不同行业产业角度和不同的影响方面对气候变化可能带来农业生产影响的分析资料,梳理和辨析了气候变化对农业生产影响的途径和机理,提出了气候变化对中国国家尺度农业影响的发酵效应假设:气候变化因子间相互作用与交错叠加,产业的传递和反馈,可能带来不利效应的严重放大;未来气候变化下中国农业面临的基本问题将是:农业技术进步的迟滞性和农业生产能力的波动性,稳定农业生产水平和粮食供应能力将愈来愈困难。讨论和建议了应对气候变化的若干国家战略,这些战略应基于气候变化对中国农业生产的影响的敏感性行业和地区,气候变化的突出性趋势的认识。防患和应对极端性气象灾害事件将成为应对气候变化对农业影响的首要任务,需要加强研究和技术储备,同时迫切需要新的组织和运行机制全面开展气候变化对中国农业生产影响的试验和技术开发研究。     

自然环境因素对农户选择种植作物的影响机制——以黑龙江省宾县为例

【目的】探讨自然环境因素对农户农作物选择的影响机制,为农户的适应行为提供决策支持。【方法】本研究以黑龙江省宾县为研究区域,通过当面访谈方式,获取384个农户问卷调查数据;采用频率分析方法,从气象要素和自然灾害两个方面,分析自然环境变化对农户作物选择的影响及农户种植行为的适应机制。【结果】通过分析农户认知和选择行为发现,气象要素、自然灾害及作物产量对农户作物选择有影响,农户在作物类型变更时首先考虑产量因素,其次是气候因素,再次是自然灾害因素,但在对自然环境要求高的作物类型变化中,如水稻改玉米,自然环境因素受重视程度显著增加。更换作物类型与品种、调整农时是农户适应自然环境因素变化中采用较多的行为。农户对自然环境变化的感知与实际趋势是否一致,会影响农户是否主动改变作物类型。【结论】为提高农户适应自然环境因素变化的影响,今后宜从提高农户主动适应行为入手,引导农户改善应对气候变化与自然灾害能力,在应对行为上需有更为高层次的区域布局和政策引导。     

Household and Community Assets and Farmers＇ Adaptation to Extreme Weather Event： the Case of Drought in China

Under climate change, rising frequency and serious extreme weather events have challenged agricultural production. Designing appropriate adaptation measures to the extreme weather events require rigorous and empirical analysis. The overall goals of this study are to understand physical adaptation measures taken by farmers and the impacts of household and community assets on farmers＇ adaptation when they face drought. The analyses are based on a unique data set collected from a household survey in three provinces in China. The survey results show that though not common on annual basis, some farmers did use physical adaptation measures to fight drought. Regression analysis reveals that both household and community assets significantly affect farmers＇ adaptation behaviors. Improving households＇ social capital and wealth, communities＇ network and access to government＇s anti-drought service can facilitate farmers＇ adaptation to drought. Results indicate that community＇s irrigation infrastructure and physical adaptation taken by farmers can substitute each other. Further analysis shows that the households taking adaptation measures have higher crop yields than those without taking these measures. The paper concludes with several policy implications.     

中国东北地区气候变暖的粮食生产适应及公众参与

为了认识和应对气候变化问题,本研究以1978—2008年东北地区小麦、玉米、稻谷的种植面积和单位面积产量数据为基础,分析了粮食作物播种面积比重、粮食作物种植结构的变化,应用线性回归分析方法对比分析气候变化对小麦、玉米、稻谷单产的影响差异。结果表明,在全球变暖驱动下,东北地区农业种植正在发生适应性变化,种植面积的扩大是人类主动应对气候变化的表现。研究发现,这种农业适应是公众自我实行而非政府有计划推行的。借助这个经验,笔者认为针对东北地区农业适应气候变化现象,提出了以公众参与气候变化为核心,作为公众的组成部分农业企业和农村居民应该更有计划地参与行列里面来,其中包括改造农业设施、推广新型品种,以更有效地应对和适应气候变化。     

非洲农业产量对气候变化响应与适应研究进展

非洲是全世界气候变化最脆弱的地区,而非洲农业受气候变化的影响最为敏感。气候变化已经并将继续对非洲农业和粮食安全产生较大的负面影响。提高气候变化对非洲作物产量影响的理解,揭示非洲农业对气候变化的响应规律,是及时、正确和有效适应气候变化的关键。本文综述了非洲农业对气候变化的响应与适应的研究进展,总结了作物机理模型、统计模型和经济模型目前研究这一问题的三大主要方法,系统阐述了非洲农业对过去和未来气候变化的响应程度及适应措施。未来气候变化对非洲农业的可能影响,不同的研究在不同时间尺度和空间尺度上,随着气候情景、研究方法和作物种类的不同,影响程度的结论差异性较大：作物机理模型方法显示的影响范围是-84%-62%;统计方法评价的影响范围则是-57%-30%;而用计量经济学方法研究显示的影响范围是-100%-168%。随着气候变化对非洲农业的影响得到公认,非洲农业对气候变化的适应问题得到了越来越多的研究。选育抗旱品种、发展保护性农业、完善灌溉设施、调整技术管理等适应措施将有可能对粮食安全带来更大的益处。另外,加强极端气候事件的监测和预警、增强气候预报、有效结合气候变化制定农业生产种植和管理措施、调整作物布局、发挥区域和国际组织（世界气象组织WMO、联合国粮农组织FAO等）在非洲应对气候变化影响方面的合作和对非洲的援助等措施均可提高非洲农业对气候变化的适应能力。本文进一步讨论了研究中存在的不确定性因素,包括数据、方法、结果的不确定性以及气候变化的间接影响、缺乏综合研究等问题,并指出了未来的发展趋势。本文有助于更好地理解非洲农业产量对气候变化的响应与适应,为解决非洲粮食安全问题和消除非洲贫困提供科技支撑,同时也为中国农业应对气候变化提供借鉴。     

What would farmers do? Adaptation intentions under a Corn Belt climate change scenario

This paper examines farmer intentions to adapt to global climate change by analyzing responses to a climate change scenario presented in a survey given to large-scale farmers (n = 4778) across the US Corn Belt in 2012. Adaptive strategies are evaluated in the context of decision making and farmers’ intention to increase their use of three production practices promoted across the Corn Belt: no-till farming, cover crops, and tile drainage. This paper also provides a novel conceptual framework that bridges a typology of adaptation with concepts that help predict intentionality in behavior change models. This conceptual framework was developed to facilitate examination of adaptive decision making in the context of agriculture. This research effort examines key factors that influence farmers’ intentions to increase their use of the practices evaluated given a climate change scenario. Twenty-two covariates are examined across three models developed for no-till farming, cover crops, and tile drainage. Findings highlight that farmers who believed they should adjust their practices to protect their farm from the negative impacts of increased weather variability were more likely to indicate that they would increase their use of each of the practices in response to climate change. Additionally, visiting with other farmers to observe their practices was positively associated with farmers’ intentions to increase their use of the adaptive strategies examined. Farmers who were currently using no-till farming, cover crops, and tile drainage were also more likely to plan to increase their use of these practices in response to increased weather variability associated with climate change. However, farmers who reported high levels of confidence in their current practices were less likely to plan on changing their use of these practices in response to climatic changes.     

半干旱地区马铃薯种植户适应气候变化行为研究——基于甘肃省362个微观调查数据

为了解甘肃省定西市马铃薯种植户适应气候变化行为及其影响因素,采用Bivariate-Probit模型,对362个马铃薯种植户主动和被动适应气候变化两种行为进行了研究,结果表明:种植户的年龄、是否参加技术培训、是否受到自然灾害、农业贷款可获得性明显促进了他们主动适应气候变化的行为,而村庄距市场距离、所在地域起负向影响;影响种植户是否采取被动适应性行为的主要因素是转移劳动力占家庭劳动力人数占比、受到自然灾害影响、获得农业贷款的可行性。就边际效应而言,农业贷款可获得性更能促进种植户适应气候变化。     

基于湖北省十个代表县(市)的农户适应气候变化的偏向特征与影响因素分析

利用来自湖北省公安县、枝江市等10个代表地区847个稻农的调研数据,运用Binary probit模型的计量经济分析方法,对农户气候变化适应性行为实施的偏向特征及影响因素展开研究。结论表明:农户实施劳动偏向型气候变化适应性行为的比例最高,且超过65%,而实施技术偏向型气候变化适应性行为比例最低;气候变化感知、土地转入、户主性别、家庭农业劳动力、接受生产培训等因素对农户实施不同要素偏向型的气候适应性行为产生显著影响,其中,感知到降雨越来越不规律的农户比未感知到的农户在实施劳动和技术偏向型气候适应性行为的概率上分别高出29.1%和18.8%,发生土地转入的农户实施劳动和技术偏向型气候适应性行为的概率要比未发生土地流转的农户高出10.9%和7.5%。最后提出了降低适应气候的制度成本、拓宽气候信息服务路径等政策建议。     

气候变化对我国农业发展的影响综述

全球气候变暖加大了我国农业发展的不确定性。本文基于我国气候变化的基本事实，分析了气候变化对我国农业发展的影响。结果表明，气候变化导致气温和降水变化，对我国作物生长、产量和农业潜在生产力等产生重要影响，对作物品质和产量带来直接影响，加剧了农业病虫害的发生和流行，进而加大了对农业经济的影响，同时还影响了我国农业种植制度。本研究为农业生产适应气候变化、确保高质量发展提供了参考。     

中德农业源污染管控制度比较研究

已有许多研究证实防治农业生产过程中氮磷进入水域以及氮素进入大气环境已成为现代农业面临的最大挑战之一。为分析中国在农业源污染防控中存在问题,本文对中国和德国近年来颁布的相关法律、法规、技术标准和实施效果进行了综述和比较分析。研究显示,与中国相似,德国人均耕地资源比较少,以家庭农场为单元的经营方式是德国农业的主要生产方式。农业存在经营规模相对小而分散,受气象条件和市场影响风险大、利润薄、需要财政补贴才能生存等问题。对于农业源污染治理,既要实现环境目标,也要顾及农民利益、农业发展和粮食安全,难以简单采用关、停、并、转等行政指令和惩罚性措施,主要是建立和实施农业源污染管控制度。为提高农民施肥技术水平,减少农田化肥养分投入量,德国最有效的做法是在长期试验研究基础上,为农民专门设计和制作了一套比较完整的分区、分类、量化施肥技术指标和规程,这些指标简单、易记、易懂,对不同地区土壤和气候条件有良好适用性,易于推广和普及,对于提高农民施肥技术水平,实现减肥增产、减肥高产发挥了重要作用。在防治农业源氮磷进入水环境,化合态氮进入大气环境方面,德国主要做法是研究、建立和实施一系列与经济奖惩措施关联的限定性技术标准,对农田氮素养分投入量、农田氮磷盈余量、施肥期、施肥方法、种植作物类型等给出了明确的规定和技术指标。同时不断探索新的、更有效的监管和监测方法,充分发挥经济杠杆作用,鼓励、帮助和疏导农民广泛采用更先进、更精准和环境友好的替代技术。农业源污染管控制度的实施使得自20世纪80年代以来,德国农田化肥养分投入量减少了一半,以农田面积（耕地面积与长期作物面积之和）计化肥养分量从404 kg·hm ^-2减少到目前的192 kg·hm ^-2,仅为目前中国的53%,同期粮食单产仍提高了56%,从4 779 kg·hm ^-2增加到目前的7 464 kg·hm ^-2,比中国目前粮食单产仍然高37%。中国至今缺少为农民专门设计、适合农民认知和直接采用的量化施肥技术指标。目前也无与国家及地方政府奖惩政策关联的限定性技术标准出台,无论在全国范围,还是在重点流域,至今难以形成有制度性保障的农业源污染管控体系。在占作物总播面23.6%的蔬菜、水果、花卉等高收益作物农田上,农民盲目施肥、过量施肥情形普遍,在这类农田上,氮磷养分盈余量远超过德国肥料法规所规定的环境安全限量（50 kg N·hm ^-2、10 kg P₂O₅·hm ^-2）。比较研究还显示,实施农业源污染管控制度的核心是以创新研究带动法律、法规、相关技术标准和监管方法的出台和广泛实施。而中国近年来公益性土壤肥料专业科研机构的均质化、碎片化,以及科研机构在绩效考核中对SCI论文点数、发文量等量化指标的过分倚重,使得相关研究薄弱,亟需加以改进。     

气候变化对作物生产潜力的影响研究进展

作物生产潜力的研究对提高作物产量、评价地区粮食的生产能力和人口承载能力,以及为合理进行农业生产规划提供依据。气候变化（包括温度、降水、日照时数等）和极端天气（如干旱、洪涝和暴风雨等）已经对农业产生了深刻的影响。综述了目前国内外气候变化对作物生产潜力的影响的研究方法,以及气候变化对中国小麦、水稻、玉米等主要粮食作物的生产潜力的影响,分析了目前研究中存在的问题与展望,以期为提高中国主要粮食作物的生产潜力和适应气候变化提供理论依据。