地形测绘用三天线机载干涉合成孔径雷达

回顾了中国科学院电子学研究所重复飞行机载L—SAR干涉系统和机载X波段双天线干涉SAR系统的研制和试验，阐述了利用收发天线分置结构拓展干涉基线长度的方法。在采用三天线的收发天线分置结构机载干涉SAR的基础上，构建三天线的双基线机载干涉SAR，并就其基线精密动态测量和基线优化设计两个关键技术以及系统性能进行了分析。分析结果表明，利用三天线构成的双基线机载干涉SAR是改进相位展开过程、提高高程测量精度的有效方法。     

A maximum-likelihood estimator to simultaneously unwrap, geocode, and fuse SAR interferograms from different viewing geometries into one digital elevation model

This paper presents theory, algorithm, and results of a maximum-likelihood algorithm that is capable to fuse a number of heterogeneous synthetic aperture radar interferograms into a single digital elevation model (DEM) without the need for the critical phase-unwrapping step. The fusion process takes place in the object space, i.e., the map geometry, and considers the periodic likelihood function of each individual interferometric phase sample. The interferograms may vary regarding their radar wavelength, their baseline, their heading angle (ascending or descending), and their incidence angle. Geometric baseline error estimates and a priori knowledge from other estimates like existing DEMs are incorporated seamlessly into the estimation process. The presented approach significantly differs from the standard DEM generation method where each interferogram is first phase-unwrapped individually, then geocoded into a common map geometry, and finally averaged with DEMs generated from other interferograms. By avoiding the phase-unwrapping step, the proposed algorithm does not depend on gradients between samples and is therefore capable to reconstruct the arbitrary height of each single scatterer. Because the height of each DEM sample is determined individually, spatial propagation of phase-unwrapping errors is avoided. The algorithm is targeted to fuse an ensemble of interferometric multiangle or multibaseline observations in areas of rugged terrain or highly ambiguous data where algorithms based on phase unwrapping may fail. The algorithm is explained, and examples with real data from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission are given. Conditions of future missions are simulated, and optimization criteria for the viewing geometry are discussed.     

干涉Cartwheel获取高精度DEM的联合校准技术

干涉Cartwheel能利用编队卫星间的空间基线进行干涉测高,并通过干涉定标技术获取精确的数字高程模型。现有的干涉定标技术不能充分利用干涉Cartwheel的空间编队构形,且受空间测量手段的限制,编队构形的获取精确度低,利用起来难度较大。文中首先利用干涉Cartwheel的几何构形,建立了编队构形误差和平台系统参数误差之间的关系,然后联立各干涉平台的敏感度方程,利用空间构形误差和参数误差的互相耦合,一次对各干涉平台获取的数字高程模型进行地形联合校准。仿真结果表明了该算法的有效性。     

基于定位方程的多基线InSAR测高精度分析

分布式星载合成孔径雷达干涉测高系统提供了多个通道的观测数据。为地面目标的高程重建提供了冗余信息,文中提出通过对多基线定位方程进行泰勒展开的一阶近似方法,分析了该冗余信息对测高精度的影响。从提高测高精度、优化系统设计的角度出发,通过调整系统基线的指向来改变各参数的误差传播系数,得到最优的测高精度。采用Monte—Carlo和信号仿真两种方法验证了误差传播系数的理论推导,同时将优化后的多基线系统的高程误差传播系数与单基线系统作了对比。结果表明,上述测高精度分析方法是可行的;通过合理的多基线设计,可以降低单基线系统各参数的高程误差敏感度。     

分布式小卫星合成孔径雷达三维地形成像的最优垂直轨迹基线

分布式小卫星合成孔径雷达 (DSS-SAR)中垂直轨迹基线和沿轨迹基线同时存在、相互耦合,且具备多个基线,因此与单星SAR干涉相比,DSS-SAR三维地形成像最优垂直轨迹基线的确定更为复杂。该文提出了一种确定DSS-SAR三维地形成像最优垂直轨迹基线的新方法。该方法根据DSS-SAR干涉复图像对的相位差的统计特性,推导了DSS-SAR多基线干涉的干涉相位的克拉美-罗界,并由此求得测高误差与垂直轨迹基线之间的关系式,令测高误差对垂直轨迹基线的导数为零,得出DSS-SAR三维地形成像的最优垂直轨迹基线。最后根据最优垂直轨迹基线的计算式,详细分析并推导了由3颗小卫星构成的不同空间编队构形DSS-SAR的最优垂直轨迹基线,结果表明,当基线数为1时,论文推导的DSS-SAR多基线干涉最优垂直轨迹基线与已有单星SAR干涉最优基线设计结果一致。此分析结果验证了论文方法的正确性。     

PolInSAR analysis of X-band data over vegetated and urban areas

This paper investigates the polarimetric and polarimetric interferometric synthetic aperture radar (PolInSAR) information contained in the high-resolution X-band data acquired by the RAMSES airborne SAR system over an area around Avignon, France containing bare surfaces, vegetation, and urban areas. The interferometric coherences are computed over natural and urban areas for all possible baseline copolar polarizations. In the complex plane, the obtained regions of coherence corresponding to most vegetation areas display small angular extents, meaning that if penetration occurs in the foliage, it is shallower than the system height accuracy. To quantify the PolInSAR information, an analysis of the interferometric height accuracy is first performed, and the results are compared with those associated with a theoretical and an empirical model. Concerning vegetation, a 6-m height difference is measured between the different polarimetric phase centers over a sparse pine forest, probably due to the presence of holes in the canopy. Crop study reveals also that wheat-type fields present oriented media properties at X-band due to their vertical structure. Over urban areas, in most cases, building height can be accurately obtained by using Pauli polarimetric phase center information.     

An application of L-band synthetic aperture radar to tide height measurement

A method for measuring the tide height near the coast from L-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data is presented. Twenty-one coherent interferograms have been successfully constructed from Japanese Earth Resources Satellite 1 (JERS-1) SAR data obtained over oyster sea-farming structures. A coherence analysis of the 21 interferometric pairs showed that a perpendicular baseline of less than 3 km, with a temporal baseline within 500 days, are required to obtain a coherent pair, with a coherence higher than 0.25, in the study area. The coherent phases preserved in the interferograms showed a close relation with the sea level. The problem of phase unwrapping to restore an absolute tide height was overcome by introducing normalized image intensities. The radar measurements estimated by the proposed method were verified using tide gauge data, and comparison of the two datasets yielded a correlation coefficient R/sup 2/ of 0.91, with a root mean square error of 5.76 cm. The results demonstrate that radar interferometry can be applied for a tide height measurement near the coast given sufficient structures that return off-nadir radar pulses to the antenna. The multipolarized L-band SAR system will provide better results, using only double-bounced signals, in the future.     

MST-based stepwise connection strategies for multipass Radar data, with application to coregistration and equalization

This paper proposes a unified framework for predicting optimized pairing strategies for interferometric processing of multipass synthetic aperture radar data. The approach consists in a minimum spanning tree (MST) structure based on a distance function encoding an a priori model for the interferometric quality of each image pair. Using a distance function modeled after the interferometric coherence allows reproducing many "small baseline" strategies presented in the recent literature. A novel application of the method to the processing steps of image coregistration and equalization is illustrated, using a test European Remote Sensing Satellite dataset. Widespread methods used for these two operations rely on the computation of the amplitude cross correlation over a large number of corresponding tie patches distributed over the scene. Geometric shift and radiometric equalization parameters are estimated over the patches and used, respectively, within a polynomial warp model and a radiometric correction scheme. The number of reliable patches available behaves similarly to the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) coherence with respect to the baselines, and can be assimilated to a quality figure for the derivation of the MST. Results show an improvement in the quality of the stepwise (SW)-processed image stack with respect to the classical single-master procedure, confirming that the SW approach is able to provide better conditions for the estimation of correlation-related InSAR parameters.     

Terrain elevation mapping results from airborne spotlight-mode coherent cross-track SAR stereo

Coherent cross-track synthetic aperture radar (SAR) stereo is shown to produce high-resolution three-dimensional maps of the Earth surface. This mode utilizes image pairs with common synthetic apertures but different squint angles allowing automated stereo correspondence and disparity estimation using complex correlation calculations. This paper presents two Ku-band, coherent cross-track stereo collects over rolling and rugged terrain. The first collect generates a digital elevation map (DEM) with 1-m posts over rolling terrain using complex SAR imagery with spatial resolution of 0.125 m and a stereo convergence angle of 13.8/spl deg/. The second collect produces multiple DEMs with 3-m posts over rugged terrain utilizing complex SAR imagery with spatial resolutions better than 0.5 m and stereo convergence angles greater than 40/spl deg/. The resulting DEMs are compared to ground-truth DEMs and relative height root-mean-square, linear error 90-percent confidence, and maximum height error are reported.     

Accuracy of topographic maps derived from ERS-1 interferometricradar

An interferometric radar technique for topographic mapping of surfaces promises a high-resolution approach to the generation of digital elevation models. The authors present analyses of data collected by the synthetic aperture radar instrument on-board the ERS-1 satellite on successive orbits. Use of a single satellite in a nearly repeating orbit is attractive for reducing cost and spaceborne hardware complexity; also it permits inference of changes in the surface from the correlation properties of the radar echoes. The data have been reduced to correlation maps and digital elevation models. The correlation maps show that temporal correlation decreases significantly with time, but not necessarily at a constant well-defined rate, likely depending on environmental factors. When correlation among passes remains high, however, it is possible to form digital elevation models. Analyses of noise expected in ERS-1 interferometric data collected over Alaska and the southwestern United States indicate that maps with relative errors less than 5 m rms are possible in some regions. However, orbit uncertainties imply that tie points are required in order to reduce absolute height errors to a similar magnitude. The authors find that about 6 tie points per 40×40 km scene with 5 m rms or better height accuracy are needed to keep systematic map height errors below 5 m rms. The performance of the ERS-1 radar system for topographic applications, though useful for a variety of regional and local discipline studies, may be improved with respect to temporal decorrelation errors and absolute height acuity by modifying the orbit repeat period and incorporating precise orbit determination techniques. The resulting implementation will meet many, but not all, objectives of a global mapping mission     

Tree height influence on ERS interferometric phase in boreal forest

The European Remote Sensing 1/2 (ERS-1/2) "tandem" coherence has been shown to provide estimates of stem volume in boreal forest in agreement with in situ data. Tree height estimation from ERS interferometric phase represents a further step in the investigations concerning the retrieval of biophysical parameters using repeat-pass synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry. At two test sites located in Sweden and Finland, sets of respectively nine and eight ERS "tandem" interferograms were available. Images acquired under stable winter weather conditions and during nighttime were found to be less affected by atmospheric artifacts. Reduction of atmospheric artifacts in interferograms was performed with a phase screen estimated over a dense grid of open areas. Nonetheless, at each test site, only a limited set of pairs was useful for tree height investigations. Under stable winter conditions, the interferometric tree height obtained from an inversion of the differential interferometric phase at stand level was found to be much lower than the true tree height. Spread and uncertainty in the interferometric tree height measurements were caused by phase noise and residual atmospheric artifacts. Using the semiempirical interferometric water cloud model (IWCM), the modeled interferometric tree height was generally in reasonable agreement with the measurements, showing the need of a phase term in interferometric modeling of forests. The inversion of the IWCM for tree height retrieval showed the strong effect of phase noise and atmospheric artifacts on the estimates. Hence, tree height retrieval from ERS repeat-pass SAR interferometry seems to have limited forestry applications. The results also indicate under what conditions the forest influence is small on digital elevation models derived from repeat-pass interferometry.     

An Error Prediction Framework for Interferometric SAR Data

Three of the major error sources in interferometric synthetic aperture radar measurements of terrain elevation and displacement are baseline errors, atmospheric path length errors, and phase unwrapping errors. In many processing schemes, these errors are calibrated out by using ground control points (GCPs) (or an external digital elevation model). In this paper, a simple framework for the prediction of error standard deviation is outlined and investigated. Inputs are GCP position, a priori GCP accuracy, baseline calibration method along with a closed-form model for the covariance of atmospheric path length disturbances, and a model for phase unwrapping errors. The procedure can be implemented as a stand-alone add-on to standard interferometric processors. It is validated by using a set of single-frame interferograms acquired over Rome, Italy, and a double difference data set over Flevoland, The Netherlands.     

Accuracy, reliability, and depuration of SPOT HRV and Terra ASTER digital elevation models

Studies the accuracy and reliability of digital elevation models (DEMs) generated from two different satellite sources, the Terra Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and the Systeme Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT) High Resolution Visible (HRV) stereoscopic images, using three different photogrammetric softwares. The main reason for the study is the heterogeneity and absence of agreement found in previous research concerning several significant aspects of DEM generation methods. A set of 91 DEMs were generated from SPOT data and 55 DEMs from ASTER data. Error control was performed with 315 check points determined by differential global positioning systems. Results of Terra ASTER DEMs show that elevation RMSE (root mean square error) equals 13.0 m. The corresponding RMSE value for SPOT HRV DEM is 7.3 m. In both cases, the error is less than the pixel size. Furthermore, this communication proposes a technique to improve DEM structure, based on an objective criterion to cleanse redundancy in DEMs without a significant loss of accuracy. This criterion is based on removing all points with a correlation value below a threshold value.     

InSAR误差建模与误差估计方法

针对干涉合成孔径雷达(InSAR)系统的误差问题,对系统各种误差源按照误差特性进行分析和分类,通过误差传递分析,建立了InSAR测高误差的参数化模型.在此基础上,利用地面控制点,通过最小二乘法得到整个测绘带内的系统性高程误差分布,进而根据各类误差对测高误差的影响规律,分别将恒定误差、缓变误差和随机误差分类提取出来.仿真...     

Mapping the world's topography using radar interferometry: theTOPSAT mission

Global-scale topographic data are of fundamental importance to many Earth science studies, and obtaining these data is a priority for the Earth science community. Several groups have considered the requirements for such a data set, and a consensus assessment is that many critical studies would be enabled by the availability of a digital global topographic model with accuracies of 2 and 30 m in the vertical and horizontal directions, respectively. Radar interferometric techniques have been used to produce digital elevation models at these accuracies and are technologically feasible as the centerpiece of a spaceborne satellite mission designed to map the world's land masses, which we denote TOPSAT. A radar interferometer is formed by combining the radar echoes received at a pair of antennas displaced across-track, and specialized data processing results in the elevation data. Two alternative implementations, one using a 2 cm-λ radar, and one using a 24 cm-λ radar, are technologically feasible. The former requires an interferometer baseline length of about 15 m to achieve the required accuracy, and this could be built on a single spacecraft with a long extendible boom. The latter necessitates a kilometers long baseline, and would thus be best implemented using two spacecraft flying in formation. Measurement errors are dominated by phase noise, due largely to signal-to-noise ratio considerations, and attitude errors in determining the baseline orientation. For the 2-m accuracy required by TOPSAT, the orientation must be known to 1 arc-second. For the single-spacecraft approach, where attitude would be determined by star tracking systems, this performance is just beyond the several arc-second range of existing instruments. For the dual-spacecraft systems, though, differential global positioning satellite measurements possess sufficient accuracy. Studies indicate that similar performance can be realized with either system     

EQUIVALENT BASELINE AND INTERFEROMETRIC PHASE OF CLUSTER SATELLITE SAR

The change of the equivalent baseline and interferometric phase of cluster SAR satellites is analyzed when the constellation circles around the Earth and the satellites rotate around the center at the same time. The letter provides assessment of baseline error and phase error which influence the precision of height measurement in the across-track interferometric mode. The mathematical model of cluster satellite movement is built, simulation analyses and the curve of height error are presented. The simulation results show that height measurement error can be compensated by the formulae derived in this letter, therefore, the Digital Elevation Models (DEM‘s) are recovered accurately.     

Digital elevation map generation using VHF-band SAR data in forested areas

The paper investigates digital elevation model (DEM) generation based on data from the ultra wideband coherent all radio band sensing (CARABAS) very high frequency (VRF)-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The results show excellent capability to penetrate forest areas, i.e., the generated DEMs are found to be close to the true ground height. A conventional DEM, based on stereo photography and surveying, and additional phase differential Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements have been used for comparison. The results in heavily vegetated areas (stem volume up to 600 m/sup 3//ha) show a mean height difference of less than 1.5 m and a root-mean-square (rms) error of less than 1.0 in compared to the conventional DEM. Stable backscattering properties allows us to use large baselines in order to obtain high height sensitivity. However, the amount of poor data due to low coherence increases with the increase of the baseline. The optimum baseline which balances these two effects is found to correspond to an incidence angle difference of 4/spl deg/-8/spl deg/.     

A simple and exact solution for the interferometric and stereo SAR geolocation problem

This paper provides a closed-form solution to the geolocation problem arising in the generation of digital elevation models (DEMs) via both stereo and interferometric synthetic aperture radar techniques. The proposed solution is found with no approximations in an arbitrary Cartesian reference system, thus efficiently allowing the generation of DEMs in a chosen cartographic projection. Moreover, it is amenable of an easy and precise sensitivity analysis that exploits the full three-dimensional nature of the problem, thus being particularly useful when high-squinted and/or crossed-track acquisitions are considered.