Impacts of policy related to structural adjustment of agriculture on grain supply in China

China's policy on structural adjustment of its agriculture is an effective instrument for increasing agricultural production and developing the rural economy. The policy interventions used included converting cultivated land from growing grain crops to cash crops and increasing the production of meat, eggs and milk. The impacts of these changes on grain supply between 1998 and 2004 are identified and quantified at national and regional levels. The data on cultivated land diverted to other purposes are presented for the benefit of the decision maker. The paper concludes that the policy had significant impacts on China's grain supply, which declined by 14.4% of the total grain output in 1998. However, nearly 40% of the cultivated land at national level could potentially be converted by 2010. Regional disparities in the extent of the reduction in grain supply and in land conversion are highlighted with reference to different economic conditions and policy directions.     

Assessment of ecological risks induced by land use and land cover changes in Xiamen City,China

The landscape ecological risk (LER) in Xiamen City, China, from 1990 to 2030 was studied using an urban land use and land cover change (LUCC) model and LER analysis. The LUCC model was used to predict the LUCC of Xiamen from 2020 to 2030. We analyzed the characteristics of LUCC and landscape pattern changes and, finally, evaluated the effect of rapid LUCC on LER. Of the six landscape types investigated, built-up land and farmland demonstrated the most significant changes. The area of built-up land increased by 1.5 times in 2010 and is predicted to increase by 2.7 times in 2030 than that in 1990. The area of farmland increased from 34.5% in 1990 to 24.5% in 2010 and is predicted to decrease to 15.1% in 2030. The number of patches (NP) of built-up land decreased with increasing area, which promoted the dominance of built-up land over other landscape types. Five landscape types, those other than built-up land, increased in NP, landscape fragmentation, segmentation, and disturbance but decreased in dominance. The LER of Xiamen in 2010 was slightly lower than that in 1990. However, with the acceleration of urbanization, the LER in 2020 and 2030 will increase by 7.6% and 12.5% than that in 2010. The LER will significantly increase in areas such as the Huandong sea area, the second urban core of Xiamen, and northern Xiang'an. For the areas, some measures (e.g. optimum urban spatial growth patterns and control of coastal reclamation) must inevitably increase to reduce the LER posed by rapid urbanization.     

Identification of agricultural factors for improving sustainable land resource management in northern Thailand: A case study in Chiang Mai Province

This paper aims to identify the land-use factors benefiting sustainable land management in terms of environmental conservation. For evaluating the impacts of land use on the environment, the following parameters were used: chemical fertiliser and pesticide use, land-use structure and diversity. The farmers' income, land tenure and farming scale were selected for their influence on agricultural sustainability. The analysis shows a rapid increase in use of chemical fertiliser and pesticide in the past 40 years, and an observable increase in land-use diversity. The amount of chemical fertiliser used per unit area in large-scale farming was lower than that at small scales, but large-scale farming consumes more pesticide than small-scale farming. A significant negative correlation was observed between the proportions of the holdings possessing land and the holdings using the chemical fertiliser. In order to achieve sustainable agriculture, it is necessary to manage crop systems and land use towards selecting new strains and varieties of crops and fruits with a lower demand for chemical fertiliser and a higher resistance to disease and pests, balancing large- and small-scale farming, and ensuring land tenure and economic incentives.     

Eco-Environmental benefit assessment of the western route in China's South-North Water Transfer Project

Assessing the benefits of China's South-North Water Transfer project (SNWT) requires successful integration of an analysis of economic and eco-environmental benefits (EEB). To attain such integration, it is necessary to assess the EEB in detail, after the economic benefits have also been thoroughly assessed. The shadow engineering and market value methods are the major EEB assessment methods used in this study. We have assessed the EEB of the forest and grassland ecosystems in the recipient regions of the Western Route Project (WRP) for 2020, 2030 and 2050. Finally, some proposals are also made for efficient and sustainable management of the WRP.     

村镇土地资源集约利用评价与影响因素分析——以四川省葛仙山镇为例

土地是人类生存和发展的基础,土地利用水平与人类社会的经济、社会和环境效益紧密相关。目前,随着我国城镇化水平的快速发展,城镇土地利用方式正在从粗放外延式向集约内涵式转化,而农村地区由于不合理的土地利用方式,大部分土地集约利用水平低,土地利用效率低。因此,研究农村土地集约利用状况,对转换目前农村土地利用方式并促进农村的可持续发展至关重要。基于行政村空间尺度,利用四川省彭州市2006年土地利用变更调查数据和葛仙山镇社会经济统计数据,运用模糊评价法和因子分析法,对四川省葛仙山镇20个行政村土地资源集约利用水平进行评价,并对影响因素进行因子分析。结果表明：从总体来看,葛仙山镇土地资源集约利用水平较低,属于低度集约利用水平,各行政村之间没有明显的空间差异性,受地形和区位等因素影响,北部丘陵山区的土地资源集约利用水平低于南部平原坝区。因子分析表明提高土地利用程度和土地投入水平是促进葛仙山镇土地资源集约利用水平的两个首要解决问题。尤其是减少北部丘陵山区人均农村居民点面积,提高对建设用地的利用强度,加大对土地的资金投入和人力资源投入,进一步挖掘北部丘陵山区的土地利用潜力,提高土地利用的强度,是葛仙山镇提高土地集约利用总体水平的首要任务。同时,还需加强葛仙山镇村镇土地整理的力度,多途径挖掘土地利用潜力,扩大人均耕地面积,提高土地的可持续利用程度。     

Recycling municipal,agricultural and industrial waste into energy,fertilizers, food and construction materials,and economic feasibility: a review

The global amount of solid waste has dramatically increased as a result of rapid population growth, accelerated urbanization, agricultural demand, and industrial development. The world's population is expected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, while solid waste production will reach 2.59 billion tons. This will deteriorate the already strained environment and climate situation. Consequently, there is an urgent need for methods to recycle solid waste. Here, we review recent technologies to treat solid waste, and we assess the economic feasibility of transforming waste into energy. We focus on municipal, agricultural, and industrial waste. We found that methane captured from landfilled-municipal solid waste in Delhi could supply 8–18 million houses with electricity and generate 7140 gigawatt-hour, with a prospected potential of 31,346 and 77,748 gigawatt-hour by 2030 and 2060, respectively. Valorization of agricultural solid waste and food waste by anaerobic digestion systems could replace 61.46% of natural gas and 38.54% of coal use in the United Kingdom, and could reduce land use of 1.8 million hectares if provided as animal feeds. We also estimated a levelized cost of landfill solid and anaerobic digestion waste-to-energy technologies of $0.04/kilowatt-hour and $0.07/kilowatt-hour, with a payback time of 0.73–1.86 years and 1.17–2.37 years, respectively. Nonetheless, current landfill waste treatment methods are still inefficient, in particular for treating food waste containing over 60% water.

     

Simulation of soil carbon changes due to land use change in urban areas in China

Land use change can have a strong impact on soil carbon dynamics and carbon stocks in urban areas. Due to rapid urbanization, large areas of land have been paved, and other areas have undergone rapid land use change. Evaluation of the impact of urbanization on carbon dynamics and carbon stock (30 cm) has become an issue of urgent concern. The soil carbon dynamics, due to rapid land use change in Tianjin Binhai New Area of China, have been simulated in this paper using the RothC model. Because this area is saline, a modified version of RothC that includes a salt rate modifier provided more accurate simulations than the original model. The conversion to urban green land was not accurately simulated by either of the models because of the undefined changes in soil and plant conditions. According to the model, changes of arable to grassland resulted in a decline in soil carbon stocks, and changes of grassland to forest and grassland to arable resulted in increased soil carbon stocks in this area. Across the whole area simulated, the total carbon stocks in 2010 had decreased due to land use change by 6.5% from the 1979 value. By 2050, a further decrease of 21.9% is expected according to the 2050 plan for land use and the continuing losses from the soils due to previous land use changes.     

Per-capita estimations of long-term historical land use and the consequences for global change research

Changes in land use and land cover are important in global climate change, but the many uncertainties in historical estimates seriously hamper climate modelling. We collected new data on estimated per capita land use over the last two millennia, using new data sources from the Humanities. In general, and in agreement with literature, we found that per capita land use indeed has not been constant in the past, but differ per region and over time. Land use in the distant past was mostly less than 1 ha/cap. However, the recently colonised regions show much higher values and have experienced a much higher per capita land use for the recent past. Most known trajectories follow a concave or bell-shaped curve towards the present.     

Effectiveness of China's National Forest Protection Program and nature reserves

There is profound interest in knowing the degree to which China's institutions are capable of protecting its natural forests and biodiversity in the face of economic and political change. China's 2 most important forest‐protection policies are its National Forest Protection Program (NFPP) and its national‐level nature reserves (NNRs). The NFPP was implemented in 2000 in response to deforestation‐caused flooding. We undertook the first national, quantitative assessment of the NFPP and NNRs to examine whether the NFPP achieved its deforestation‐reduction target and whether the NNRs deter deforestation altogether. We used MODIS data to estimate forest cover and loss across mainland China (2000–2010). We also assembled the first‐ever polygon dataset for China's forested NNRs (n = 237, 74,030 km² in 2000) and used both conventional and covariate‐matching approaches to compare deforestation rates inside and outside NNRs (2000–2010). In 2000, 1.765 million km² or 18.7% of mainland China was forested (12.3% with canopy cover of ≥70%)) or woodland (6.4% with canopy cover <70% and tree plus shrub cover ≥40%). By 2010, 480,203 km² of forest and woodland had been lost, an annual deforestation rate of 2.7%. Forest‐only loss was 127,473 km² (1.05% annually). In the NFPP provinces, the forest‐only loss rate was 0.62%, which was 3.3 times lower than in the non‐NFPP provinces. Moreover, the Landsat data suggest that these loss rates are overestimates due to large MODIS pixel size. Thus, China appears to have achieved, and even exceeded, its target of reducing deforestation to 1.1% annually in the NFPP provinces. About two‐thirds of China's NNRs were effective in protecting forest cover (prevented loss 4073 km² unmatched approach; 3148 km² matched approach), and within‐NNR deforestation rates were higher in provinces with higher overall deforestation. Our results indicate that China's existing institutions can protect domestic forest cover.     

Evaluating Private Land Conservation in the Cape Lowlands,South Africa

Abstract: Evaluation is important for judiciously allocating limited conservation resources and for improving conservation success through learning and strategy adjustment. We evaluated the application of systematic conservation planning goals and conservation gains from incentive‐based stewardship interventions on private land in the Cape Lowlands and Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. We collected spatial and nonspatial data (2003–2007) to determine the number of hectares of vegetation protected through voluntary contractual and legally nonbinding (informal) agreements with landowners; resources spent on these interventions; contribution of the agreements to 5‐ and 20‐year conservation goals for representation and persistence in the Cape Lowlands of species and ecosystems; and time and staff required to meet these goals. Conservation gains on private lands across the Cape Floristic Region were relatively high. In 5 years, 22,078 ha (27,800 ha of land) and 46,526 ha (90,000 ha of land) of native vegetation were protected through contracts and informal agreements, respectively. Informal agreements often were opportunity driven and cheaper and faster to execute than contracts. All contractual agreements in the Cape Lowlands were within areas of high conservation priority (identified through systematic conservation planning), which demonstrated the conservation plan's practical application and a high level of overlap between resource investment (approximately R1.14 million/year in the lowlands) and priority conservation areas. Nevertheless, conservation agreements met only 11% of 5‐year and 9% of 20‐year conservation goals for Cape Lowlands and have made only a moderate contribution to regional persistence of flora to date. Meeting the plan's conservation goals will take three to five times longer and many more staff members to maintain agreements than initially envisaged.     

Evaluating losses in ecosystem services in nature reserves in Sichuan,China

Nature reserves have developed rapidly over the decades in China and play a significant role in the function of ecosystem services. The function of ecosystem services in nature reserves, however, has tended to decline in recent years due to natural hazards and human activities. Based on land use, the variation of ecosystem services value (ESV) during 2000–2010 in national nature reserves in Sichuan was evaluated. We analyzed the comprehensive effects of natural disasters and human activities on the decline of ESVs. Total ESV in the national nature reserves in Sichuan was approximately 2741.35 million US$ in 2000, 2616.81 million US$ in 2005, and 2499.06 million US$ in 2010, representing a decrease of 242.29 million US$, or 8.84%, in the decade. Forestland, grassland, wetland, and water bodies played vital roles in the function of ecosystem services, with an aggregated ESV of 99% of the total. The largest proportion of the total ESV was the protection of biodiversity at 48.6%. ESV of all land use types and single ecosystem services continued to decline during 2000–2010. A mechanism of adaptable risk prevention should be established, and unreasonable human activities should be avoided to protect ecosystems and to improve the functions of ecosystem services.     

Economics of Grassland Conversion to Cropland in the Prairie Pothole Region

Abstract: Much of the remaining grassland, particularly in North America, is privately owned, and its conversion to cultivated cropland is largely driven by economics. An understanding of why landowners convert grassland to cropland could facilitate more effective design of grassland‐conservation programs. We built an empirical model of land‐use change in the Prairie Pothole Region (north‐central United States) to estimate the probability of grassland conversion to alternative agricultural land uses, including cultivated crops. Conversion was largely driven by landscape characteristics and the economic returns of alternative uses. Our estimate of the probability of grassland conversion to cultivated crops (1.33% on average from 1979 to 1997) was higher than past estimates (0.4%). Our model also predicted that grassland‐conversion probabilities will increase if agricultural commodity prices continue to follow the trends observed from 2001 to 2006 (0.93% probability of grassland conversion to cultivated crops in 2006 to 1.5% in 2011). Thus, nearly 121 million ha (30 million acres) of grassland could be converted by 2011. Conversion probabilities, however, are spatially heterogeneous (range 0.2% to 3%), depending on characteristics of a parcel (e.g., soil quality and economic returns). Grassland parcels with relatively high‐quality land for agricultural production are more likely to be converted to cultivated crops than lower‐quality parcels and are more responsive to changes in the economic returns on alternative agricultural land uses (i.e., conversion probability increases by a larger magnitude for high‐quality parcels when economics returns to alternative uses increase). Our results suggest that grassland conservation programs could be proactively targeted toward high‐risk parcels by anticipating changes in economic returns, such as could occur if a new biofuel processing plant were to be built in an area.     

Methodology for an urban ecological footprint to evaluate sustainable development in China

The ecological footprint (EF) is a method for measuring sustainable development through ecological impact. A methodology is presented for predicting urban ecological footprints. Urban energy use and natural resource consumption were analyzed to calculate an EF based on land type (arable, pasture, forest, fossil energy land, built-up area and water area) and consumption (food, housing, transportation, goods, services and waste). The result was then compared with the local ecological carrying capacity to develop criteria for sustainable ecological footprints. Case studies of four cities in China (Guangzhou, Ningbo, Suzhou and Yangzhou) illustrate the urban EF approach. The time series of EF in a case study of Guangzhou for 1991–2001 was analyzed and the consumption–land-use matrix of urban EF was established. The results show that the cities are ecologically unsustainable, with average ecological conflicts per capita of more than 2 ha. The urban EF method is useful to measure urban sustainable development and provides policy proposals for decision-making. However, the EF method still has limitations and weaknesses.     

Simulating future land use and ecosystem services in Northern Thailand

Enhancing ecosystem services is important as it provides foundation for the wellbeing of people. This paper presents the future land use simulation for enhancing ecosystem services using CLUMondo dynamic spatial model. The land use change was assessed from 1989 to 2013 in Wang Thong watershed of Northern Thailand using GIS and a set of ecosystem services was assessed using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model. Future land uses until 2030 were projected for three policy scenarios, namely business-as-usual, integrated land use development, and enhancing environmental services with different levels of emphasis on ecosystem services. In business-as-usual scenario, it was observed that ecosystem services will decline by 2030 from the base year of 2013, whereas in integrated land use development scenario, the ecosystem services will increase by 5% compared to base year due to anticipated effective protection of remaining forests in all existing and proposed protected areas of the study area. In enhancing environmental services scenario, the ecosystem services will increase by 15%. Such results can serve as useful information in policy formulation in developing land use options, which help enhance ecosystem services in future.     

The potential role of virtual water in solving water scarcity and food security problems in China

Water, as a source of food security, plays an essential role in ensuring sustainable food resources for a growing population. However, water scarcity has increasingly become a constraint to economic development, particularly food production. The water-food challenge is impending because of China's increasing population and water demand. The concept of virtual water is useful to analyze this problem. In this paper, the implications and policy relevance of virtual water are expounded. Based on imported food volumes, it is calculated that an annual average of 10.52 × 10⁹ m³ of virtual water embodied in imported wheat and maize in the period between 1990 and 2000 is equivalent to 23% of the annual average transfer water volume of the South-North Water Transfer (SNWT) project. Consequently, this 29.3 × 10⁶ ha of virtual land is equivalent to 19% of China's arable land in 2000. Using the grain import prediction and the agricultural production conditions of China, the virtual water equivalents of China in 2010 and 2020 are evaluated, and are about 88 × 10⁹ m³ in 2010 and 95 × 10⁹ m³ in 2020, respectively. Importing virtual water embedded in traded food can alleviate water stress and even achieve food security. Virtual water trade may compensate for water demands for not only the past but also the future. Meanwhile, water trade can store water in its virtual water form, enabling food storage to play a potential role in solving food problems, as well as promoting sustainability of water resources in China.     

湖南省生态足迹与生态承载力的动态变化分析

生态足迹是定量研究区域可持续发展的一种重要方法。为了定量评价湖南省可持续发展程度的动态变化,利用生态足迹理论,计算分析了湖南省1998--2006年间的生态足迹变化过程。结果表明,湖南省人均生态足迹由1998年的1．2441hm。上升至2006年的1．6377hm^2;人均生态承载力由1998年的0．4819hm^2减少为2006年的0．4556hm^2,人均生态赤字由1998年的0．7622hm0上升到2006年的1．1821hm0。生态赤字逐年提高,生态足迹与生态承载力之间的矛盾加剧,区域生态环境处于不安全状态。生态足迹供需结构分析表明,湖南省人均生态足迹供需存在严重的不平衡,其需求以草地、耕地是构成湖南省人均生态足迹的主要组成部分,分别占人均生态足迹的30．11％～37．34％以及29．83％-33．53％,其次是化石能源地（17．60％～22．85％）。而供给以耕地为主,占人均生态承载力的51．02％～53．23％。研究期间万元GDP生态足迹总体上呈下降趋势,表明湖南省的资源利用率不断提高。同时根据生态盈亏的影响因素,并结合湖南省经济发展现状和资源分布特点,探讨了降低和消除区域生态赤字的措施建议。     

Thresholds of species loss in Amazonian deforestation frontier landscapes

In the Brazilian Amazon, private land accounts for the majority of remaining native vegetation. Understanding how land‐use change affects the composition and distribution of biodiversity in farmlands is critical for improving conservation strategies in the face of rapid agricultural expansion. Working across an area exceeding 3 million ha in the southwestern state of Rondônia, we assessed how the extent and configuration of remnant forest in replicate 10,000‐ha landscapes has affected the occurrence of a suite of Amazonian mammals and birds. In each of 31 landscapes, we used field sampling and semistructured interviews with landowners to determine the presence of 28 large and medium sized mammals and birds, as well as a further 7 understory birds. We then combined results of field surveys and interviews with a probabilistic model of deforestation. We found strong evidence for a threshold response of sampled biodiversity to landscape level forest cover; landscapes with <30–40% forest cover hosted markedly fewer species. Results from field surveys and interviews yielded similar thresholds. These results imply that in partially deforested landscapes many species are susceptible to extirpation following relatively small additional reductions in forest area. In the model of deforestation by 2030 the number of 10,000‐ha landscapes under a conservative threshold of 43% forest cover almost doubled, such that only 22% of landscapes would likely to be able to sustain at least 75% of the 35 focal species we sampled. Brazilian law requires rural property owners in the Amazon to retain 80% forest cover, although this is rarely achieved. Prioritizing efforts to ensure that entire landscapes, rather than individual farms, retain at least 50% forest cover may help safeguard native biodiversity in private forest reserves in the Amazon. Umbrales de Pérdida de Especies en los Paisajes Fronterizos de Deforestación en el Amazonas Ochoa‐Quintero     

Downgrading,Downsizing, Degazettement,and Reclassification of Protected Areas in Brazil

Protected areas (PAs) are key elements for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services. Brazil has the largest PA system in the world, covering approximately 220 million ha. This system expanded rapidly in the mid‐1990s to the mid‐2000s. Recent events in Brazil, however, have led to an increase in PA downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD). Does this reflect a shift in the country's PA policy? We analyzed the occurrence, frequency, magnitude, type, spatial distribution, and causes of changes in PA boundaries and categories in Brazil. We identified 93 PADDD events from 1981 to 2012. Such events increased in frequency since 2008 and were ascribed primarily to generation and transmission of electricity in Amazonia. In Brazilian parks and reserves, 7.3 million ha were affected by PADDD events, and of these, 5.2 million ha were affected by downsizing or degazetting. Moreover, projects being considered by the Federal Congress may degazette 2.1 million ha of PA in Amazonia alone. Relaxing the protection status of existing PAs is proving to be politically easy in Brazil, and the recent increase in frequency and extension of PADDD reflects a change in governmental policy. By taking advantage of chronic deficiencies in financial and personnel resources and surveillance, disputes over land tenure, and the slowness of the Brazilian justice, government agencies have been implementing PADDD without consultation of civil society. If parks and reserves are to maintain their integrity, there will need to be investments in Brazilian PAs and a better understanding of the benefits PAs provide. Degradación, Reajuste, Eliminacióm de las Listas y Reclasificación de Áreas Protegidas en Brasil     

Land resource degradation in China: Analysis of status,trends and strategy

Land degradation threatens environmental well-being and is a growing global issue. China is among the most affected countries in the world in terms of the extent, intensity and economic impact of land degradation. Sustainable and successful intervention requires clear definition and quantification of land degradation. Based on land resource variation survey data from 1991 to 2002, this paper identified, defined and classified land resource degradation, and analyzed dynamic changes in the degradation and rehabilitation process. Through the establishment of a land resource degradation index, the status and trend of degradation in China was explored to enable the design and planning of interventions for mitigation and establishment of sustainable land use and management practices. Results showed that: (1) The total land degradation index (A) fluctuated upwards from 1991 to 2002, although some parts improved. (2) Sand and rock desertification, deforestation and wetland loss reduced slightly, whereas secondary salinification, non-agricultural land occupation and natural grassland further deteriorated. (3) 66.27% of degradation was in natural grassland and non-agricultural land; while 57.5% of rehabilitation focused on sandy desertification and forests. (4) Non-agricultural land occupation and wetland shrinkage are primary causes of land resource deterioration in China. (5) Grassland, cultivated land and forest land accounted for 83.9% of degradation. (6) All the degradation processes are interrelated. These results provide useful information to combat future land resource degradation in China.     

Local use of agricultural lands and natural resources as the commons in Gunung Halimun National Park,West Java,Indonesia

The theory of the commons encompasses two interpretations: one based on 'manifest customs', whilst the other relates to 'latent customs'. The former asserts that individuals behave as rational economic units, pursuing their own profit based on economic mechanisms, whilst social restrictions relating to the use of resources within communities act to prevent the total destruction of the natural environment. In contrast, the latter holds that people behave according to the morality or ethics embedded within the society, and that this contributes to sustainable resource management.

A field survey conducted in West Java as part of the present study revealed that a system of communal ownership of lands and resources is widely practiced on land that is strictly private property, including paddy fields, cultivated swiddens, gardens and so forth, facilitated by the distribution of land, lending and borrowing of land and collaborative labour systems. This customary management system is considered a prime example of the commons resource management. Furthermore, communal lands were also seen to play a significant role in the distribution of land and resources amongst community members to supplement daily needs. In addition, these customary land-use systems, as the commons, are considered to contribute towards mitigating the gap between rich and poor.