The spyglass self: A model of vicarious self-perception.

Self-perception theory posits that people sometimes infer their own attributes by observing their freely chosen actions. The authors hypothesized that in addition, people sometimes infer their own attributes by observing the freely chosen actions of others with whom they feel a sense of merged identity--almost as if they had observed themselves performing the acts. Before observing an actor's behavior, participants were led to feel a sense of merged identity with the actor through perspective-taking instructions (Study 1) or through feedback indicating that their brainwave patterns overlapped substantially with those of the actor (Studies 2-4). As predicted, participants incorporated attributes relevant to an actor's behavior into their own self-concepts, but only when they were led to feel a sense of merged identity with the actor and only when the actor's behavior seemed freely chosen. These changes in relevant self-perceptions led participants to change their own behaviors accordingly. Implications of these vicarious self-perception processes for conformity, perspective-taking, and the long-term development of the self-concept are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self as actor, active observer, and passive observer: Implications for causal attributions.

D. T. Miller et al (see record 1975-21040-001) distinguished between active observers (those on the receiving end of an actor's behavior) and passive observers (onlookers of an event involving an actor and an active observer). Following the concept of hedonic relevance, it was hypothesized that active observers would attribute the actor's behavior to personal dispositions of the actor more strongly than passive observers. In a series of hypothetical emotional events, 24 male undergraduates were depicted either as actors ("You like Ted"), active observers ("Ted likes you"), or passive observers ("Ted likes Paul"). They then rated the degree to which the actor, active observer, or some "other reason" had caused the given event. Although the actor–observer effect was obtained overall, an interaction between S role and positivity of verb indicated that it occurred much more strongly in negative-verb than positive-verb events. That is, Ss, either as actors or active observers, tended to deny their responsibility for negative events but did not claim praise for positive events. Implications for the effects of egotism on attribution are discussed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions as inferences and explanations: Effects on discounting.

Observers assessing the probability of an interpretation for a behavioral event may (a) assess the probability that certain inferences can be drawn from the event (inference set) or (b) assess the probability that some explanation can cause the event (explanation set). We suggested that inference set subjects would be more likely than explanation set subjects to discount less plausible interpretations in favor of more plausible interpretations. In three studies observers either estimated the probability that some inferences can be drawn from an event or estimated the probability that some explanation can be the cause for the event. As predicted, the inference set produced a higher level of discounting. Studies 1 and 3 also showed that future-oriented observers made attributions similar to those made in the inference set. However, this effect was open to alternative interpretations in Study 1 and failed to reach statistical significance in Study 3. There was also an indication that inference set subjects were more likely to make correspondent attributions. Additional tests of the effects of time orientation and the possible relation between the inference–explanation distinction and actor–observer differences were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance reduction in the context of group membership: The role of metaconsistency.

Recent work has established that groups can reduce dissonance by providing consonant cognitions, normative support, or an opportunity to diffuse responsibility for counterattitudinal behavior. Adopting a social identity framework, the current research comprised 2 studies examining metaconsistency, which was proposed to underlie these disparate explanations for the effect of social support. In Study 1 (N = 121), participants performed a counterattitudinal behavior with or without attitude and behavior support. As expected, congruence between the participants’ attitude–behavior consistency and another’s attitude–behavior consistency reduced attitude change. Study 2 (N = 69) replicated the results of Study 1; in addition, metaconsistency influenced participants’ perceptions of their own attitude–behavior consistency. The implications of metaconsistency for other contemporary perspectives of dissonance theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution processes in distressed and nondistressed couples: IV. Self–partner attribution differences.

The importance of the self–other distinction for understanding the relation between attributions and marital satisfaction is examined in two studies. In Study 1, causal attributions for naturally occurring behavior by the self and spouse were investigated. Study 2 examined both causal and responsibility attributions for hypothetical behaviors. In both studies, the attributions of spouses seeking therapy were investigated in relation to those of happily married persons in the community. The results showed that self–other attribution differences varied as a function of marital distress. Nondistressed spouses showed a positive attribution bias by making more benign attributions for partner behavior as opposed to self-behavior, whereas distressed spouses showed a negative attribution bias by making less benign attributions for partner behavior than for self-behavior. These findings suggest that self-attributions may, in part, determine the impact of attributions for spouse behavior on marital satisfaction. The clinical relevance of the results and their implications for research on actor–observer attribution differences are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting, measuring, and testing dyadic patterns in the actor–partner interdependence model.

Family researchers have used the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) to study romantic couples, parent–child dyads, and siblings. We discuss a new method to detect, measure, and test different theoretically important patterns in the APIM: equal actor and partner effect (couple pattern); same size, but different signs of actor and partner effects (contrast pattern); and zero partner effects (actor-only pattern). To measure these different patterns, as well as others, we propose the estimation of the parameter k, which equals the partner effect divided by the actor effect. For both indistinguishable dyad members (e.g., twins) and distinguishable dyad members (e.g., heterosexual couples), we propose strategies for estimating and testing different models. We illustrate our new approach with four data sets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to penalties for an offense in relation to authoritarianism, values, perceived responsibility, perceived seriousness, and deservingness.

Two studies involving participants from metropolitan Adelaide, South Australia (Study 1: N?=?220, Study 2: N?=?181) examined variables that were assumed to influence cognitive and affective reactions to penalties imposed for offenses relating to domestic violence, plagiarism, and shoplifting (in Study 1), and resisting a police order in a protest against logging (in Study 2). Results of path analyses supported a model that assumed paths linking perceived responsibility to the perceived seriousness of an offense; responsibility and seriousness to deservingness of the penalty; deservingness to the perceived harshness of the penalty, to reported positive affect about the penalty, and to reported sympathy for the offender; and perceived harshness of the penalty to reported positive affect and sympathy. Right-wing authoritarianism and relevant values had direct effects on perceived seriousness consistent with the assumption that values affect the way an offense is construed in relation to its negative valence or aversiveness. Deservingness had a central role as a mediator of reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

White Selves: Conceptualizing and Measuring a Dominant-Group Identity.

This article addresses the nature and measurement of White racial identity. White identification is conceptualized as an automatic association between the self and the White ingroup; this association is fostered through social exposure to non-Whites and serves to link self- and ingroup evaluations. Four studies validated a measure of White identification against criteria derived from this model. In Study 1, the White Identity Centrality Implicit Association Test (WICIAT) predicted response latencies in a task gauging self-ingroup merging. In Study 2, the WICIAT correlated with census data tapping exposure to non-Whites. In Studies 3 and 4, the WICIAT predicted phenomena associated with the linking of self- and ingroup evaluations: identity-related biases in intergroup categorization (Study 3) and self-evaluative emotional reactions to ingroup transgressions (Study 4). Together, the findings shed light on the antecedents and consequences of White identity, an often-neglected individual difference construct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explanation of the relation between negative mood and helping.

Prior research addressing the relation between negative affect and helping behavior has yielded inconsistent results. Three theoretical interpretations, negative-state relief, attentional focus, and responsibility/objective self-awareness, are examined in an expanded analysis of published research. For this purpose, judges assessed for each of 85 negative affect conditions the contextual levels of the variables relevant to each theory by reading relevant material that was excerpted from the method section of each article. Higher order partial correlations were then calculated between each variable and the 85 helpfulness effect sizes. The results are consistent with the attentional focus and the responsibility/objective self-awareness models. Both increased perceptions of responsibility for causing the negative event and attentional focus on another (as opposed to oneself) as the target of the negative event augment helpfulness. Furthermore, mood-lowering events that engender objective self-awareness promote helpfulness when prosocial values are psychologically salient. No support obtains for the negative-state relief model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Naive cynicism" in everyday theories of responsibility assessment: On biased assumptions of bias.

Evidence from several lab and field studies is presented that indicates that people have cynical intuitions about how others assess responsibility. Married couples (Study 1), video game enthusiasts (Study 2), debaters (Study 3), and darts players (Study 4) divided responsibility for a series of desirable and undesirable joint outcomes and anticipated how others would apportion responsibility. In all studies, participants expected the responsibility allocations of others–but not their own–to be motivationally biased. This was true regardless of whether responsibility assessments actually were biased. In Studies 3 and 4, participants assumed that their teammates would be less biased than their opponents, suggesting that factors known to influence motivation can moderate the strength of this "naive cynicism." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of knowledge regarding alternatives to settlement in dyadic negotiations: Whose knowledge counts?

Study 1 examined whose knowledge of a best alternative to the negotiated agreement produces documented benefits. The results suggest that (a) joint gain and the number of integrative trade-offs increase when the actor with the alternative is made aware of the alternative and (b) the actor with the alternative obtains a marginal increase in personal gain only when both negotiators (i.e., both the actor and the opponent) are aware of the actor's alternative. Study 2 explored changes in actor and opponent cognitions that result when each is informed about the actor's alternative. Results suggest that the existence of an attractive alternative changes actor and opponent walk away point (often referred to as reservation point), perception of efficacy regarding negotiation skill, perceived value of the commodity being negotiated, and distribution of power. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover.

The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is significant and consistent, but not particularly strong. A more complete understanding of the psychology of the withdrawal decision process requires investigation beyond the replication of the satisfaction–turnover relationship. Toward this end, a heuristic model of the employee withdrawal decision process, which identifies possible intermediate linkages in the satisfaction–turnover relationship, is presented. Previous studies relevant to the hypothesized linkages are cited, and possible avenues of research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

'I'm cooperative, but you're greedy": Some cognitive tendencies in a commons dilemma.

Investigated the effect of 2 resource management outcome variables (personal and group) on 4 classic cognitive tendencies (fundamental attribution error, actor–observer effect, self-serving biases, and self-centered bias) assessed at the end of a commons dilemma simulation in which Ss harvested valued resources from a shared, replenishable pool. A fifth cognitive tendency (false consensus) was examined as a function of Ss' stated harvest intentions before the dilemma began. 171 undergraduates were assigned to 1 of 34 mixed-sex groups. The false consensus effect was apparent among heavy harvesters. Responsibility for outcomes was seen as more personal than situational for both self and others: the fundamental attribution error was strongly evident, but the reverse of the actor–observer bias was found. Harvesters took more than their proportional share of responsibility for the outcomes, yet they assigned even more responsibility to others. Light harvesters disclaimed responsibility for damaged commons when others harvested heavily; heavy harvesters took considerable responsibility for poorly managed commons. In sum, cognitive biases and tendencies were very evident and, as a whole, tended toward self-servingness, but did not always take their traditional forms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward an affirmative lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender leadership paradigm.

This article presents an affirmative paradigm for understanding the leadership of sexual minorities—that is, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. Although research on LGBT issues in leadership to date is almost nonexistent, there are several bodies of literature that can contribute to an understanding of the unique leadership challenges faced by sexual minority people. These include the literatures on stigma and marginalization, leadership in particular status groups (e.g., college students, women), and LGBT vocational issues (especially workplace climate and identity disclosure). We propose a new, multidimensional model of LGBT leadership enactment that incorporates sexual orientation (particularly regarding identity disclosure), gender orientation (including leader gender), and the situation (conceptualized here as group composition); the model also is embedded in context, the most relevant factors that affect the enactment of leadership being stigma and marginalization. We explicate this model with findings and concepts from relevant literatures, and we conclude the article with recommendations for building a scholarly literature in LGBT leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processes and conflict in close relationships: An attribution-efficacy model.

A recently proposed model of cognitive processes underlying conflict in close relationships (Doherty, 1978, 1981a, 1981b) is revised and tested in two studies. Central to the original model are the causal attributions made for conflict and the perceived efficacy or ability to resolve conflict. The model is revised to incorporate judgments of responsibility and to provide a closer link to self-efficacy theory. The first study examines attributions and efficacy expectations in mother–child relationships. As anticipated, only weak evidence was obtained for predictions retained from the original model, highlighting the relationship-specific nature of cognitive processes for conflict in families. A second study examines husband–wife relationships and provides evidence for the usefulness of an attribution-efficacy model for marital conflict. The attributional component of the model received greater support than that pertaining to efficacy expectations. In both studies, support was obtained for the proposal that the relation between conflict dimensions (e.g., blame) and causal dimensions is mediated by judgments of responsibility. The significance of the revisions to Doherty's model for understanding conflict in close relationships is discussed, and several avenues for further research are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why listeners hear less than they are told: Attentional load and the teller–listener extremity effect.

Prior research (T. Gilovich, 1987; M. Inman, A. Reichl, & R. Baron, 1993) indicated that individuals (tellers) who directly observe an actor (on video tape) rate that actor less extremely than other individuals (listeners) who hear the tellers' secondhand accounts of the actor's actions. Evidence has suggested that this teller–listener effect is due at least in part to listeners' failure to encode and consider mitigating circumstances contributing to the actors' actions (Inman et al., 1993). The present research examined several explanations for this phenomenon. Study 1 found stronger teller–listener differences (and less recall of mitigating information) when listeners heard the teller's account in the presence of noise. Studies 2 and 3 found listener's interpretations to be more extreme when the verbal accounts they heard were verbally disorganized. These results support an attentional load explanation for teller–listener differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships.

Forgiving is a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them. The authors describe a model of forgiveness based on the hypothesis that people forgive others to the extent that they experience empathy for them. Two studies investigated the empathy model of forgiveness. In Study 1, the authors developed measures of empathy and forgiveness. The authors found evidence consistent with the hypotheses that (a) the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and (b) that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner. In Study 2, the authors conducted an intervention in which empathy was manipulated to examine the empathy–forgiving relationship more closely. Results generally supported the conceptualization of forgiving as a motivational phenomenon and the empathy–forgiving link. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of behavioral intentions and consequences on judgments of the actor and other: An S-V-O analysis.

Used an extension of H. F. Gollob's (1974) subject–verb–object (S–V–O) model of social inference to investigate the effects of information about behavioral intentions and consequences on judgments of both an actor and the person toward whom the behavior is directed. In Exp I, 48 undergraduates received one or more pieces of information about an attribute of the actor, the actor's intentions to help or hinder the other, the actual consequences of this action (whether the other is helped or hindered), and an attribute of the other. Judgments of actors' admirableness increased with the favorableness of the adjectives describing them, the favorableness of both their intentions and the consequences of their actions, the justness of their intentions and of the consequences of their actions, and their ability to produce the consequences they intended. Behavioral consequences appeared to affect judgments of both the actor and the other independently of the actor's intentions. Exp II, with 51 undergraduates, demonstrated that the effects of information on judgments of the actor depended on the dimension of judgment in predictable ways and suggested that judgments of admirableness may be mediated by perceptions of both virtuousness and competence. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coming out in the age of the Internet: Identity "demarginalization" through virtual group participation.

Internet newsgroups allow individuals to interact with others in a relatively anonymous fashion and thereby provide individuals with concealable stigmatized identities a place to belong not otherwise available. Thus, membership in these groups should become an important part of identity. Study 1 found that members of newsgroups dealing with marginalized–concealable identities modified their newsgroup behavior on the basis of reactions of other members, unlike members of marginalized–conspicuous or mainstream newsgroups. This increase in identity importance from newsgroup participation was shown in both Study 2 (marginalized sexual identities) and Study 3 (marginalized ideological identities) to lead to greater self-acceptance, as well as coming out about the secret identity to family and friends. Results supported the view that Internet groups obey general principles of social group functioning and have real-life consequences for the individual. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)