Vesicoureteric reflux and urinary tract infection in children

An association between vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) and renal damage was found in 1960. In 1973, the term reflux nephropathy (RN) was first used to describe the renal damage caused by VUR. Follow up studies show that about 10%-20% of children with RN develop hypertension or end stage renal disease. It is now evident that there is a sex difference in the development of RN. In most males with RN, the kidneys are congenitally abnormal. In females it is an acquired condition, the most severe damage being sustained by recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). The purpose of current UTI guidelines is to identify VUR or any other abnormality of the urinary tract. Since the advent of routine antenatal ultrasonography, there is no longer a need to identify an abnormality of the urinary tract after the first reported UTI. Routine investigations are not required. Recurrent UTIs and a family history of VUR need further evaluation. There is also an urgent need to establish the long term value of prophylactic antibiotics in children with VUR.     

Microscopy, culture, and sensitive management of uncomplicated urinary tract infections in adults in the primary care setting

The high prevalence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) places a significant burden on healthcare systems. Clinicians may over-manage the issue, and there is great variability in practice, with economic- and resource- implications. Up to 40% of patients with a suspected UTI do not have an infection. Using PubMed (Medline) to shortlist relevant papers in English from the last 30 years, and further sub-selection to include only uncomplicated UTIs in adults in primary care, we reviewed the literature pertaining to uncomplicated UTIs, and how it should be managed efficiently in the primary care setting. In general practice, there is no advantage to routinely request microscopy and culture of urine samples in the presence of an appropriate history and urinalysis reagent-strip testing. If antibiotics are required, then a 3-day course shall suffice. Larger epidemiological studies focusing on more susceptible sub-populations may provide better guidance for discriminatory factors to produce an algorithm for treatment.     

Evaluation of the Nitrite Test in Screening for Urinary Tract Infection in Febrile Children with Sickle Cell Anaemia in Maiduguri- Nigeria

BACKGROUND: Urinary tract infection is a significant cause of morbidity in children with sickle cell anaemia (SCA). Individuals with SCA have increased risk of urinary tract infection (UTI). Facilities for urine culture may not be available in most rural and even some urban areas in most developing countries like Nigeria. It will therefore be useful to have a simple means of screening such children for UTI with the intent of prompt treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study will evaluate the usefulness of the nitrite test in detecting UTI in febrile SCA children. This study was carried out in the Department of Paediatrics University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital and State Specialist Hospital Maiduguri. RESULTS: The study consisted of 250 children aged 6 months to 15 years with SCA presenting with fever (temperature ≥ 37. 5°C). Midstream urine specimen was collected from older children and suprapubic bladder aspiration of urine specimen was collected from infants. Samples were subjected to nitrite test, culture and sensitivity. There was significant bacteriuria in 65 (26+) children with SCA. A positive test for nitrite was obtained in 43 of the 65 (66.2+) children. The nitrite test has a specificity of 93.5+ in detecting bacteriuria, a sensitivity of 66.2+, a positive predictive value of 78.2+ and a negative predictive value of 93.5+. A positive nitrite test was significantly associated with bacteriuria, while a negative test was also significantly associated with an absence of bacteriuria. CONCLUSIONS: From this study, the nitrite test is useful as a screening test for UTI in SCA children. However in sick children with SCA, microscopy, culture and sensitivity should still be done in spite of a negative nitrite test.     

Does this child have a urinary tract infection?

Nader Shaikh, MD, MPH; Natalia E. Morone, MD, MSc; John Lopez, MD; Jennifer Chianese, MD, MSc; Shilpa Sangvai, MD, MPH; Frank D’Amico, PhD; Alejandro Hoberman, MD; Ellen R. Wald, MD

JAMA. 2007;298(24):2895-2904.

Context  Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a frequently occurring pediatric illness that, if left untreated, can lead to permanent renal injury. Accordingly, accurate diagnosis of UTI is important.

Objective  To review the diagnostic accuracy of symptoms and signs for the diagnosis of UTI in infants and children.

Data Sources  A search of MEDLINE and EMBASE databases was conducted for articles published between 1966 and October 2007, as well as a manual review of bibliographies of all articles meeting inclusion criteria, 1 previously published systematic review, 3 clinical skills textbooks, and 2 experts in the field, yielding 6988 potentially relevant articles.

Study Selection  Studies were included if they contained data on signs or symptoms of UTI in children through age 18 years. Of 337 articles examined, 12 met all inclusion criteria.

Data Extraction  Two evaluators independently reviewed, rated, and abstracted data from each article.

Data Synthesis  In infants with fever, history of a previous UTI (likelihood ratio [LR] range, 2.3-2.9), temperature higher than 40°C (LR range, 3.2-3.3), and suprapubic tenderness (LR, 4.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6-12.4) were the findings most useful for identifying those with a UTI. Among male infants, lack of circumcision increased the likelihood of a UTI (summary LR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.9-4.3); and the presence of circumcision was the only finding with an LR of less than 0.5 (summary LR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.18-0.63). Combinations of findings were more useful than individual findings in identifying infants with a UTI (for temperature >39°C for >48 hours without another potential source for fever on examination, the LR for all findings present was 4.0; 95% CI, 1.2-13.0; and for temperature <39°C with another source for fever, the LR was 0.37; 95% CI, 0.16-0.85). In verbal children, abdominal pain (LR, 6.3; 95% CI, 2.5-16.0), back pain (LR, 3.6; 95% CI, 2.1-6.1), dysuria, frequency, or both (LR range, 2.2-2.8), and new-onset urinary incontinence (LR, 4.6; 95% CI, 2.8-7.6) increased the likelihood of a UTI.

Conclusions  Although individual signs and symptoms were helpful in the diagnosis of a UTI, they were not sufficiently accurate to definitively diagnose UTIs. Combination of findings can identify infants with a low likelihood of a UTI.

     

Evolving management of pediatric urinary tract infection

UTI is a common problem in the pediatric population with significant long-term morbidity. Fecal-urinary migration is the most common route of infection, and E. coli is the most common organism. Methods of urine collection and interpretation of urinalysis must be considered when guiding therapy, and treatment is age and severity specific. VUR is an extremely common finding in febrile urinary tract infections. The algorithm of treatment is evolving with the advent of highly successful, minimally invasive therapy.     

Lack of circumcision increases the risk of urinary tract infection in young men.

OBJECTIVE--To determine whether lack of circumcision increases the risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) in adult men. DESIGN AND SETTING--Retrospective case-control study (1987-1990) at a sexually transmitted disease clinic in Seattle, Wash. PATIENTS--Twenty-six men (median age, 30 years) who had microbiologically confirmed symptomatic UTIs (cases) compared with 52 men (median age, 32 years) who had urinary symptoms but negative urine cultures (controls). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE--Circumcision status among bacteriuric and nonbacteriuric men. RESULTS--The bacteriuric and nonbacteriuric groups were similar in age, race, sexual activity, and sexual preference. Eight (31%) of the 26 bacteriuric men were uncircumcised compared with 6 (12%) of the 52 nonbacteriuric men (P = .037; odds ratio, 3.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.0 to 11.2). Among 19 patients infected with gram-negative bacilli, 8 (42%) of 19 were uncircumcised vs 6 (12%) of 52 nonbacteriuric men (P = .004; odds ratio, 5.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.6 to 19.4). Escherichia coli was the most common urinary isolate (15 of 26 isolates), and the majority of E coli strains possessed urovirulence determinants, including mannose-resistant hemagglutination (10 of 14 isolates), F fimbriae (11 of 14 isolates), P fimbriae (6 of 14 isolates), hemolysin (10 of 14 isolates), and aerobactin (8 of 14 isolates). Although all 26 bacteriuric men had urethral cultures negative for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Gram-stained urethral smears showed evidence of urethritis in 17 (68%) of 25 men. CONCLUSIONS--(1) Lack of circumcision increases the risk of UTI in young adult men. (2) The majority of these infections result from urovirulent strains of E coli. (3) Clinically, these infections often produce urethritis as well as UTI.     

Febrile convulsions in children

The term febrile convulsion is not a diagnostic entity. It simply describes any seizure that occurs in response to a febrile stimulus. It usually occurs between the age of 3 months and 5 years and occurs in 2-4% of young children. The typical febrile convulsion is a generalized tonic clonic seizure lasting between a few seconds and 15 minutes, followed by a period of drowsiness. Febrile seizures tend to occur in families, although the exact mode of inheritance is not known. Viruses are the most common cause of illness in children admitted to the hospital with a first febrile seizure. Routine laboratory studies are not indicated for patients who have febrile seizures and should be performed only as part of the evaluation for a source of fever. Prognosis is generally good. Only a small minority of children develop epilepsy or recurrent non-febrile seizures. Children with febrile seizures are at no greater risk of intellectual impairments than their peers. Treatment to prevent recurrence has not been shown to prevent later development of epilepsy.     

Recurrent urinary tract infections in children: risk factors and association with prophylactic antimicrobials

Context  The evidence regarding risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and the risks and benefits of antimicrobial prophylaxis in children is scant. Objectives  To identify risk factors for recurrent UTI in a pediatric primary care cohort, to determine the association between antimicrobial prophylaxis and recurrent UTI, and to identify the risk factors for resistance among recurrent UTIs. Design, Patients, and Setting  From a network of 27 primary care pediatric practices in urban, suburban, and semirural areas spanning 3 states, a cohort of children aged 6 years or younger who were diagnosed with first UTI between July 1, 2001, and May 31, 2006, was assembled. Time-to-event analysis was used to determine risk factors for recurrent UTI and the association between antimicrobial prophylaxis and recurrent UTI, and a nested case-control study was performed among children with recurrent UTI to identify risk factors for resistant infections. Main Outcome Measures  Time to recurrent UTI and antimicrobial resistance of recurrent UTI pathogens. Results  Among 74 974 children in the network, 611 (0.007 per person-year) had a first UTI and 83 (0.12 per person-year after first UTI) had a recurrent UTI. In multivariable Cox time-to-event models, factors associated with increased risk of recurrent UTI included white race (0.17 per person-year; hazard ratio [HR], 1.97; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.22-3.16), age 3 to 4 years (0.22 per person-year; HR, 2.75; 95% CI, 1.37-5.51), age 4 to 5 years (0.19 per person-year; HR, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.19-5.12), and grade 4 to 5 vesicoureteral reflux (0.60 per person-year; HR, 4.38; 95% CI, 1.26-15.29). Sex and grade 1 to 3 vesicoureteral reflux were not associated with risk of recurrence. Antimicrobial prophylaxis was not associated with decreased risk of recurrent UTI (HR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.50-2.02), even after adjusting for propensity to receive prophylaxis, but was a risk factor for antibimicrobial resistance among children with recurrent UTI (HR, 7.50; 95% CI, 1.60-35.17). Conclusion  Among the children in this study, antimicrobial prophylaxis was not associated with decreased risk of recurrent UTI, but was associated with increased risk of resistant infections.      

乌司他丁对法洛四联症根治术婴幼儿的心肺保护作用

目的观察乌司他丁对法洛四联症根治手术婴幼儿的心肺保护作用。方法 2011年6月至2012年3月于我中心行根治手术的连续40例法洛四联症婴幼儿随机分为乌司他丁组和对照组,每组20例。乌司他丁组体外循环预充乌司他丁10 000 U/kg,术后三天内每日给予乌司他丁10 000U/kg。对照组于相应时间点给予等量生理盐水。比较两组患儿手术时间、体外循环时间、心脏停搏时间、监护室治疗时间、术后住院时间、手术结束时动脉血压和中心静脉压、血管活性药物使用情况,入监护室时动脉血氧分压(PaO2)和二氧化碳分压(PaCO2)、气道压力峰值(Ppeak)以及术后机械通气时间和肺部感染发生例数。结果两组患儿均无住院死亡,手术时间、体外循环时间、心脏停搏时间和术中主动脉开放后心脏复跳情况及术后住院时间无差异(P>0.05)。与对照组比较,乌司他丁组患儿超滤完成后动脉血压高、中心静脉压低,术后血管活性药物使用较少,监护室治疗时间短(均P<0.05)。两组患儿入监护室即时PaCO2无明显差异(P>0.05)。与对照组比较,乌司他丁组患儿PaO2较高,Ppeak较低,术后机械通气时间较短,肺部感染发生例数少。结论乌司他丁能够安全用于法洛四联症根治手术婴幼儿围术期治疗,对患儿心肺功能具有保护作用。     

Management of urinary tract infections

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are commonly encountered in medical practice and range from asymptomatic bacteruria to acute pyelonephritis. Enterobacteriaceae with E. coli being the most prevalent, are responsible for most commonly acquired uncomplicated UTIs and usually respond promptly to oral antibiotics. In contradistinction, more resistant pathogens cause nosocomially acquired infections which often require parenteral antibiotic therapy. Patients with acute bacterial prostatitis, usually caused by Enterobacteriaceae present with a tender prostate gland and respond promptly to antibiotic therapy. Chronic bacterial prostatitis on the other hand, is a subacute infection characterized by recurrent episodes of bacterial UTI where the patient presents with vague symptoms of pelvic pain and voiding problems. Treatment is protracted and may be frustrating. Nonbacterial prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome produce symptoms similar to those of chronic bacterial prostatitis. Treatment is not well defined due to their uncertain etiologies. Most episodes of catheter associated bacteruria are asymptomatic, where less than 5% will be complicated by bacteremia. The use of systemic antibiotics for treatment or prevention of bacteruria is not recommended, particularly in the geriatric age group, since it helps select for resistant organisms. Prevention thus remains the best option to control it. Few patients without catheters who have asymptomatic bacteruria develop serious complications and therefore routine antimicrobial therapy is not justified with only two exceptions : before urologic surgery and during pregnancy.     

Acute Infections in Primary Care: Accuracy of Electronic Diagnoses and Electronic Antibiotic Prescribing

ObjectiveTo maximize effectiveness, clinical decision-support systems must have access to accurate diagnostic and prescribing information. We measured the accuracy of electronic claims diagnoses and electronic antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory infections (ARIs) and urinary tract infections (UTIs) in primary care.DesignA retrospective, cross-sectional study of randomly selected visits to nine clinics in the Brigham and Women's Practice-Based Research Network between 2000 and 2003 with a principal claims diagnosis of an ARI or UTI (N = 827).MeasurementsWe compared electronic billing diagnoses and electronic antibiotic prescribing to the gold standard of blinded chart review.ResultsClaims-derived, electronic ARI diagnoses had a sensitivity of 98%, specificity of 96%, and positive predictive value of 96%. Claims-derived, electronic UTI diagnoses had a sensitivity of 100%, specificity of 87%, and positive predictive value of 85%. According to the visit note, physicians prescribed antibiotics in 45% of ARI visits and 73% of UTI visits. Electronic antibiotic prescribing had a sensitivity of 43%, specificity of 93%, positive predictive value of 90%, and simple agreement of 64%. The sensitivity of electronic antibiotic prescribing increased over time from 22% in 2000 to 58% in 2003 (p for trend < 0.0001).ConclusionClaims-derived, electronic diagnoses for ARIs and UTIs appear accurate. Although closing, a large gap persists between antibiotic prescribing documented in the visit note and the use of electronic antibiotic prescribing. Barriers to electronic antibiotic prescribing in primary care must be addressed to leverage the potential that computerized decision-support systems offer in reducing costs, improving quality, and improving patient safety.     

Bacterial meningitis in the first three months of life.

A retrospective study of infants with bacterial meningitis admitted to our hospital during 1949-52, highlighted the lack of ''classical'' signs of meningitis in these infants. We carried out a similar review of 44 infants aged less than three months, admitted during 1982-91. We also determined the causative organisms and their antibiotic sensitivities. Symptoms and signs were similar in the two series. Forty infants in the later series were either febrile, irritable or had seizures on the day of admission. Overall mortality fell from 30% to 11%. Between 1982 and 1991 Group B Streptocococcus and Neisseria meningitidis were the commonest causes of meningitis. All organisms, except one, were sensitive to ampicillin and/or cefotaxime. Bacterial meningitis should be suspected in young infants who are febrile, irritable or having seizures. Initial treatment with ampicillin and cefotaxime is appropriate.     

氨酪酸在反复热性惊厥脑损伤中的作用

热性惊厥是小儿时期最常见的惊厥性疾病,儿童期患病率3%～4%,约50%的患儿会在今后发热时再次或多次发生热性惊厥。反复热性惊厥过程中,氨酪酸(GABA)作为中枢神经系统重要的抑制性神经递质在海马区有显著改变,并且GABA与气体信号分子一氧化氮、一氧化碳及硫化氢相互调节,平衡兴奋/抑制状态。了解GABA在反复热性惊厥中的变化,能更好地理解其在脑损伤中的作用。     

儿童泌尿系感染病原菌群分布及耐药性分析

收集本院自2008年1月至2012年12月因泌尿系感染收治入院患儿的清洁中段尿,行尿培养和药敏试验,分析其菌群分布及常用抗菌药物的体外抗菌活性.在分离出的85株病原菌中,革兰阴性菌79株（92.9％）,革兰阳性球菌2株（2.4％）,真菌4株（4.7％）.最常见的病原菌为大肠杆菌（55株,64.7％）.79株革兰阴性菌中,产超广谱β-内酰胺酶（ESBLs）的有44株（55.7％）,产ESBLs的大肠杆菌35株（41.2％）.革兰阴性菌对亚胺培南、阿米卡星的耐药率较低.耐药率位居前三位的分别为氨苄西林（82.3％）、复方新诺明（63.3％）、氨苄西林/青霉烷（63.3％）.常用抗生素对大肠杆菌的体外抗菌活性与对革兰阴性菌类似,大肠杆菌对氨苄西林的耐药率达85.5％,对头孢三代、四代抗生素的耐药率均超过60％.     

乌司他丁对大鼠多脏器功能障碍综合征炎性因子的影响及意义

目的 通过乌司他丁（UTI）干预多脏器功能障碍综合征（MODS）大鼠,检测外周血炎性因子表达,研究UTI对MODS的可能保护作用及机制.方法 将90只Wistar大鼠随机分为对照组、模型组与UTI组,模型组与UTI组大鼠分别通过尾静脉以15 g/kg注射内毒素（LPS）,UTI组建模前24 h和建模后连续3d,每日2次以1＆#215;105 U/kg腹腔注射UTI进行干预和治疗,观察各时间点各组的体征表现并收集血清用ELISA方法检测TNF-α、IL-1α、IL-4和IL-10的表达水平.结果 ①对照组、模型组和UTI组的死亡率分别为：0％、33％和16％.②TNF-α、IL-1α的表达水平UTI组均低于相对应的模型组.③模型组IL-4的表达水平在6h与24 h与对照组相比明显的升高（P＜0.05）,UTI组与对照组相比在0h、12 h（P＜0.05）,24 h（P＜0.01）显著升高;模型组IL-10的表达水平在12h与对照组相比明显升高（P＜0.05）,UTI组在6 h～12 h时IL-10的表达水平与对照组相比明显升高（P＜0.05）.结论 UTI能降低LPS介导的大鼠MODS的死亡率,可抑制TNF-α、IL-1α释放和促进IL-4、IL-10释放,有效改善MODS的发生发展.     

Hospital-acquired infections in a Nigerian tertiary health facility: An audit of surveillance reports

Background:

Hitherto efforts to implement data driven prevention guidelines for hospital-acquired infections (HAI) in Nigeria have been limited by the inadequate knowledge of the risks of these infections. This study evaluated the occurrence of HAI in a foremost tertiary health facility over a 5-year period for the purpose of reinforcing control efforts.

Materials and Methods:

A retrospective survey of records from the infection control unit of the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria, was done for the years 2005-09. For the 5 years studied 22,941 in-patients were reviewed and the data of those who developed infections during admission were retrieved and analyzed. The prevalence, types, and causative organisms of HAI were determined. The chi-square test was used to evaluate associations.

Results:

The prevalence of HAI over the 5-year period was 2.6% (95% CI: 2.4–2.8). Surgical and medical wards had the most infections (48.3%) and (20.5%) respectively. Urinary tract infection (UTI) and surgical site infection (30.7%) were the most prevalent (43.9%) HAI. UTIs were significantly higher in surgical and medical wards, surgical site infections in obstetrics and gynecology wards, and soft tissue infections and bacteremia in pediatric wards (P<0.05). Gram-negative infections occurred about four times as often as gram-positive infections with Klebsiella sp. and staphylococcus aureus being the predominant isolates (34.3%) and (20.1%) respectively.

Conclusion:

Efforts to limit HAI should be guided by local surveillance data if progress is to be made in improving the quality of patient care in Nigeria.     

Febrile convulsion--an overview

Febrile convulsion is the most frequently occurring epilepsy syndrome, experienced in infants/children between 6 months and 5 years of age associated with fever >38 degrees C. Children having first or second degree relative with history of febrile convulsion, neonatal nursery stay of more than 30 days, developmental delay or attendance at day care centre are at increased risk of developing febrile convulsion. Single febrile convulsion does not increase the risk of epilepsy and there is no causal relationship between febrile convulsion and subsequent epilepsy. It has been recognised that there is significant genetic component for susceptibility to febrile seizures. To make the diagnosis of febrile convulsion, meningitis, encephalitis, serious electrolyte imbalance and other acute neurologic illnesses are to be excluded. While managing acute attack the steps to be taken are--airway management, a semi-prone position to avoid aspiration, monitoring vital signs and other supportive care. Diazepam or lorazepam is the drug to be used. There is no reason to expect phenobarbitone administered at the time of fever to be effective in prevention of febrile convulsion. The parents should be counselled about the benign nature of the convulsion. Although the febrile convulsion a frightening event, still it is a benign condition.     

小儿热性惊厥与血清25-羟基维生素D水平关联分析

目的了解安徽省郎溪县热性惊厥小儿血液中25-羟基维生素D[25(OH)D]水平以及与患儿儿年龄大小、性别、四季之间的联系,进而为小儿口服维生素D、预防以及减少小儿热性惊厥的发生提供临床参考依据。方法将2015-2019年郎溪县人民医院儿科住院诊断为热性惊厥的小儿306例作为热性惊厥组,选取同期因呼吸道感染住院的0~8岁小儿306例作为非热性惊厥组。统计所有小儿血清总钙(Ca2+)、血红蛋白(Hb)以及25(OH)D测定的数值,按年龄大小、性别、春夏秋冬四季等解析热性惊厥和25(OH)D水平之间的联系。结果非热性惊厥组血清25(OH)D水平为(34.47±1.43) μg/L,高于热性惊厥组的(27.57±4.44) μg/L(t＝3.26,P < 0.05);热性惊厥组25(OH)D水平高低与患儿年龄成反比;热性惊厥者的血清总钙以及Hb都在正常参考值范围。热性惊厥发生情况:最易发生的季节是每年的1月份(39例,12.75%),1~2岁最易发生(106例,34.64%),男性发病多于女性(1.53∶1.00)。郎溪县热性惊厥小儿血清25(OH)D水平在四季之间差异有统计学意义(P < 0.01): 从高到低依次为秋季(30.39±4.15) μg/L、春季(29.33±1.53) μg/L、夏季(27.28±2.98) μg/L、冬季(24.69±2.08) μg/L。热性惊厥小儿血清25(OH)D水平(?)与气温(X)的回归方程为: ?=-0.045X2+2.107X+9.442(R2=0.844)。结论安徽省郎溪县小儿热性惊厥的发生和维生素D缺乏存在关联性。热性惊厥最易发生的季节是每年的1月份,1~2岁男性患儿多见。夏季温度>30 ℃后热性惊厥小儿血液25(OH)D含量开始减少。17~33 ℃是郎溪县小儿经阳光照射皮肤途径产生维生素D的合适温度。除了在冬季常规给小儿补充维生素D外,为减少热性惊厥的发生,应在夏季高温酷暑期对小儿(特别是>2岁者)适当口服维生素D。     

Occasional urinary tract infections and urinary depletion effect mask RTA and carbonate-apatite formation in a strong urinary stone former

We report on a female patient with severe bilateral urolithiasis. A once-off stone analysis performed in the past revealed Mg-phosphate. Occasional UTIs were considered to be the sole cause of stone formation. To date, this assumption had not been checked thoroughly, while stone formation in the patient steadily increased. An inpatient metabolic and analytical work up was performed and stone-growth related urinary alteration was taken into account in urinalysis interpretation. No UTI. NH4Cl-loading test indicated RTA. CT revealed calculi in both kidneys. Carbonate-apatite (CAP) dominates stone composition. Computed urinary composition proximal to stones indicates hypercalciuria. In this patient, occasional UTIs (pH) masked the causes of urolithiasis. Lack of updated stone analysis (CAP), metabolic work up (RTA) and improved urinalysis interpretation (hypercalciuria) concealed the true causes of stone formation.     

Incidences and types of malformations in newborn infants

The incidence of fetal malformations in a teaching hospital was determined by prospective study of 10,454 consecutively born infants. One or more major malformation was detected in 424 (4-1%) and one or more minor malformation was detected in 680 (6-5%). Major malformations were more common in stillborn infants (14-1%), in those who died in the neonatal period (36-7%) and in those who were small for dates (8-6%). Small for dates infants were the only group with a significant increase in the incidence of minor malformations (9-7%). The most common major malformations involved the genital organs (17-8%), limbs (14-2%), heart (11-4%) and central nervous system (10-6%). The most common minor malformations involved the skin, hair and nails (67-3%), limbs (7-7%) and genital organs (5-5%). Small for dates infants should be carefully examined to exclude major and minor malformations.