气孔玄武岩古高程计:原理、方法及应用

古高程可以重建高山地区(尤其是高原)的隆升历史,可以更好地约束造山带的地球动力学过程.气孔玄武岩古高程计是通过熔岩流顶部和底部标准气孔体积比计算出古大气压,进而计算古高程的方法.该方法的研究对象是厚度为1～5m的且具有简单侵住历史的玄武质熔岩.高原隆升之前、期间和后期喷发的熔岩均可应用该方法.尽管该方法已经趋于成熟,但是国内还没有任何报道.对其基本原理、研究方法与应用做了详细的综述,并探讨了该方法在青藏高原和中国东部高原应用的潜力.     

古高程计：氢氧同位素的新应用

定量恢复高大地形的古高程是地质学家一直以来追求的目标，将自生矿物中氢氧同位素用作古高程计的历史不长，这种方法还有很大的应用潜力，可用到比新生代更古老的时期。根据与气团上升和水汽凝结的热动力学性质相关的瑞利平衡分馏原理，建立了这种古高程计的热动力模型，这个模型应用简便，适用于纬度小于35°的地区。区域性经验关系的方法误差较小，但也有计算繁琐、适用区域有限的不足。以上两种方法的计算精度均有待于提高。研究中使用方解石作为样品最普遍，在方解石、高岭石、蒙脱石和针铁石等矿物中,究竟使用哪种推算古高程产生的误差更小，还需进一步研究。     

青藏高原古高程定量恢复研究进展

目前在青藏高原使用的古高程定量恢复的方法有:氧同位素古高程计(包含热动力学模型和经验模型)、△47古温度—古高程计、氢同位素古高程计、古植物古高程计(包含共存分析法、叶相分析法)和古环境分析。详细分析了各古高程计的原理、应用条件、影响因素和优缺点,进一步总结了各种研究方法取得的成果和存在的问题,探讨了各研究方法在青藏高原定量古高程研究方向的应用潜力和发展前景,并对完善现有的古高程计和今后开发新的古高程计提出相关建议。     

青藏高原古高程重建研究现状

青藏高原古高程定量是研究地表抬升、地球深部动力学以及气候之间关系的纽带,对于探讨高原隆升历史和隆升机制具有重要作用。尽管近20年来国内外有关青藏高原古高程定量研究较多、涉及广泛,包括脊椎动物、植物、孢粉化石以及氧、碳、氢同位素等,缺乏对不同研究方法、应用范围及应用时应注意问题进行系统的总结和讨论,导致同一地区应用不同古高程指标得出不同的海拔高度。笔者通过总结有关青藏高原古高程研究,对其研究方法进行归纳,结合其研究中存在的问题进行讨论,并重点分析了拉萨地块古高程研究结果,认为拉萨地块古高程在晚渐新世--早中新世,具有较大地形起伏。     

火山"熔岩流气泡古高度计"及其在云南腾冲火山区的应用

通过对火山熔岩流及其气泡特征的研究能够确定熔岩流喷发时的古高度,本文将这一方法称为火山“熔岩流气泡古高度计”.“熔岩流气泡古高度计”是在实地测量熔岩流厚度和实验室对熔岩流顶底气泡体积精确测定的基础上,利用流体力学原理和气体状态方程,通过计算古大气压强,最终获得火山喷发时的古高度.由于火山岩是开展同位素测年的理想材料,并且利用熔岩流计算古高度所需的参数(熔岩流厚度和气泡体积)不受古气候等因素(温度、降雨量等)影响,因此,这一方法以其可靠的年龄和独立的计算参数明显区别于其它古高度计.“熔岩流气泡古高度计”核心技术包括:(1)熔岩流的挑选与厚度测量;(2)熔岩流底部和顶部气泡体积的计算.中等规模、具简单冷凝历史,并且厚度稳定的偏基性熔岩流,是开展古高度计算的理想对象.熔岩流气泡体积的测试手段包括注胶、岩石抛光-扫描、体视学转换和三维CT扫描4种方法.“熔岩流气泡古高度计”最终计算结果误差为400m左右.本文利用“熔岩流气泡古高度计”计算了腾冲火山区熔岩流的古高度,研究结果显示:“熔岩流气泡古高度计”计算的黑空山熔岩流高程与目前的实际高程相吻合.开展“熔岩流气泡古高度计”研究的前提是研究区必须出露保存完好的熔岩流.我国青藏高原的隆升历史一直是国际学术界争论的热点课题,那里出露大面积熔岩流.可以预见,“熔岩流气泡古高度计”将会逐渐成为研究青藏高原隆升历史的有效手段之一.     

藏北蚕眉山地区火山岩和夷平面的时代

藏北蚕眉山地区发育2个时代的新生代火山岩①上新世的花岗斑岩和流纹斑岩,白云母K-Ar同位素年龄为(3.65±0.31)MaBP.;②中新世的粗面英安岩、粗安岩和玄武粗安岩等火山熔岩,全岩K-Ar同位素年龄为(12.81±0.4)MaBP、(12.85±0.56)MaBP和(14.51±0.23)MaBP。由中新世各火山熔岩体周边的下伏地表高程和非火山岩构成的局部区域最高山岭的顶部高程恢复出火山喷发时的古地表形态,完全可与现代夷平面形态特征相对比。结合火山熔岩下伏地面表层古风化壳的发育,认为蚕眉山地区火山熔岩的下伏地面为古夷平面,本区为古夷平面残留区。     

闪电熔岩的形态、成分及其与类似天然物质的对比

闪电熔岩是由于闪电击中地表,瞬间高温使矿物熔融后凝结而成的天然玻璃质岩石.由于标本的稀缺性,国内在该方面的研究几近空白.研究采用CT扫描、三维立体成像技术和电子探针等多种观察仪器,揭示了砂质管状闪电熔岩的内、外部结构特征:玻璃质管壁外表面粗糙且形态复杂,内表面光亮且颜色与外表面不同,管壁内部含大量微小气孔,管道内部可以分为完全贯通、局部堵塞和完全封闭等状态;利用电子探针测定了闪电熔岩的成分:SiO₂含量极高,几乎为纯净的玻璃质,仅含有极少量其他金属元素;进一步对比了闪电熔岩、火山玻璃和玻璃陨石在外观、内部结构及成分上的区别,并验证了内蒙古地区类似管状岩石不是闪电熔岩.本研究对闪电熔岩这种罕见的天然物质进行了初步观测,为今后对闪电熔岩更多的科研应用提供基础参考.      

青藏高原隆升过程的磷灰石裂变径迹分析方法

由于青藏高原新生代以来地表高程持续强烈抬升,在利用磷灰石FT年龄进行高原绝对隆升速率计算时应引入古地表高程参数,而通常使用的“径迹年龄-地形高差法”却没有考虑到不同时期的古地表高程问题。为此,笔者试提出高原隆升速率计算的“径迹年龄-海拔高程法”,即以同一参考质点(样品点)在不同时期的海拔高程差作为绝对抬升量,以绝对抬升量除以时间得出隆升速率。本文讨论了改进后方法与传统方法计算结果的差异及合理性。鉴于青藏高原的隆升具有明显的脉动性与幕式作用特征,多数情况下FT年龄可能大致代表构造抬升与剥露事件的年代。     

熔岩气孔在热液成矿过程中的作用

气孔构造是火山熔岩的一个特征构造。利用熔岩的气孔或杏仁体的产出位置、形状以及气孔充填程度等特点,来确定熔岩的产状要素和流动方向,推断火山口位置。更值得指出的是,在一定条件下熔岩的气孔对热液成矿能起十分重要的作用。本文以我国内蒙702地区产于粗面岩中的铀矿床为例,试对熔岩的气孔构造在热液铀矿化形成过程中的作用进行探讨。     

准噶尔盆地西泉地区石炭系火山熔岩油气储层特征及成岩演化过程研究

火山熔岩油气藏是准噶尔盆地油气勘探和开发的重要目标之一。通过对准噶尔盆地西泉地区16口石炭系火山熔岩井的岩心观察、普通薄片和铸体薄片镜下鉴定和定量统计、扫描电镜和X-射线衍射等实验,研究玄武岩、安山岩、英安岩的岩石学特征、孔隙类型及储集特征及异同点,建立火山熔岩成岩演化序列,探讨成岩作用对火山熔岩孔隙演化的影响。研究表明,安山岩的储集空间最发育,孔隙类型及组合多样,多为气孔+斑晶溶孔+基质溶孔+溶蚀缝组合和气孔+斑晶溶孔+基质溶孔+溶蚀缝+构造裂缝组合。英安岩的孔隙组合为气孔+斑晶溶孔+基质溶孔和气孔+斑晶溶孔+基质溶孔+溶蚀缝。玄武岩孔隙类型及组合单一,为构造裂缝+溶蚀缝,构造裂缝+基质溶孔,气孔+溶蚀缝。挥发分逸出作用控制火山熔岩原生气孔的发育,岩浆期后热液作用和充填作用破坏了火山熔岩的储集空间,溶蚀作用、风化淋滤作用和构造破裂作用极大地改善了火山熔岩的储集性能。认为西泉地区石炭系顶部风化剥蚀淋滤带(距石炭系顶面0～20 m)的安山岩是油气聚集的最有利层段。     

Characteristics of the 2000 fissure eruption and lava flow fields at Mount Cameroon volcano,West Africa: a combined field mapping and remote sensing approach

This study focuses on the compound pahoehoe lava flow fields of the 2000 eruption on Mount Cameroon volcano, West Africa and it comprehensively documents their morphology. The 2000 eruption of Mount Cameroon took place at three different sites (sites 1, 2 and 3), on the southwest flank and near the summit that built three different lava flow fields. These lava flow fields were formed during a long‐duration (28th May–mid September) summit and flank eruption involving predominantly pahoehoe flows (sites 2 and 3) and aa flows (site 1). Field observations of flows from a total of four cross‐sections made at the proximal end, midway and at the flow front, have been supplemented with data from satellite imagery (SRTM DEM, Landsat TM and ETM+) and are used to offer some clues into their emplacement. Detailed mapping of these lava flows revealed that site 1 flows were typically channel‐fed simple aa flows that evolved as a single flow unit, while sites 2 and 3 lava flow fields were fed by master tubes within fissures producing principally tube‐fed compound pahoehoe flows. Sites 2 and 3 flows issued from ∼ 33 ephemeral vents along four NE–SW‐trending faults/fissures. Pahoehoe morphologies at sites 2 and 3 include smooth, folded and channelled lobes emplaced via a continuum of different mechanisms with the principal mechanism being inflation. The dominant structural features observed on these flow fields included: fissures/faults, vents, levees, channels, tubes and pressure ridges. Other structural features present were pahoehoe toes/lobes, breakouts and squeeze‐ups. Slabby pahoehoe resulting from slab‐crusted lava was the transitionary lava type from pahoehoe to aa observed at all the sites. Transition zones correspond to slopes of > 10°. Variations in flow morphology and textures across profiles and downstream were repetitive, suggesting a cyclical nature for the responsible processes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Structure and organization of submarine basaltic flows: sheet flow transformation into pillow lavas in shallow submarine environments

Distal pillows occur associated with a sheet flow and megapillows in the me?akoz outcrops of the Basque–Cantabrian Basin (N Spain). Basaltic volcanic rocks are interbedded with Turonian sediments and depict typical features of shallow submarine emissions. An exceptional basaltic flow displays four types of morphology: (1) sheet lava with columnar jointing, (2) welded columnar breccia, (3) megapillows, and (4) pillow lavas with sparse megapillows. The field data from me?akoz combined with experimental and field data from the literature for similar volcanic facies can be integrated into a new propagation model for the transition from sheet flows to pillow lavas in underwater environments. At near vent high emission rates, lava flows develop a thin crust immediately after its emplacement and break at the front under the magma pressure allowing for the massive propagation of lava as a sheet flow. Increased cooling promotes thickening of the lava outer crust far from the vent while continuous supply of fresh magma increases the pressure onto the thick crust until its rupture. The lava emitted in small volumes from the flow front promotes the formation of megapillows and pillow lavas that are later on covered by the advancing sheet flow. The lava flow freezes progressively toward more distal parts, gradually increasing its viscosity until it stops. The crust temporarily holds the residual melt pressure increasing the volume of the flow distal section by inflation. Finally, the internal magma pressure breaks the crust and liberates lava at moderate-to-low flow rates producing pillows, while lava drainage inside the inflated sheet flow produces lava tunnels and gravitational collapse of the roofs by hydrostatic pressure to form breccias nurtured by columnar lava fragments.     

Primary volcanic structures from a type section of Deccan Trap flows around Narsingpur-Harrai-Amarwara, central India: Implications for cooling history

Field investigations of the Deccan Trap lava sequence along a 70 km traverse in the Narsingpur-Harrai-Amarwara area of central India indicate twenty lava flows comprising a total thickness of around 480 m. Primary volcanic structures like vesicles and cooling joints are conspicuous in this volcanic succession and are used to divide individual flows into three well-defined zones namely the lower colonnade zone, entablature zone, and the upper colonnade zone. The variable nature of these structural zones is used for identification and correlation of lava flows in the field. For twenty lava flows, the thicknesses of upper colonnade zones of eight flows are ∼5 m while those of eight other flows are ∼8 m each. The thicknesses of upper colonnade zones of remaining four flows could not be measured in the field. Using the thicknesses of these upper colonnade zones and standard temperature-flow thickness-cooling time profiles for lava pile, the total cooling time of these sixteen Deccan Trap lava flows has been estimated at 12 to 15 years.     

A brief comparison of lava flows from the Deccan Volcanic Province and the Columbia-Oregon Plateau Flood Basalts: Implications for models of flood basalt emplacement

The nature and style of emplacement of Continental Flood Basalt (CFB) lava flows has been a matter of great interest as well as considerable controversy in the recent past. However, even a cursory review of published literature reveals that the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) and Hawaiian volcanoes provide most of the data relevant to this topic. It is interesting to note, however, that the CRBG lava flows and their palaeotopographic control is atypical of other CFB provinces in the world. In this paper, we first present a short overview of important studies pertaining to the emplacement of flood basalt flows. We then briefly review the morphology of lava flows from the Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP) and the Columbia-Oregon Plateau flood basalts. The review underscores the existence of significant variations in lava flow morphology between different provinces, and even within the same province. It is quite likely that there were more than one way of emplacing the voluminous and extensive CFB lava flows. We argue that the establishment of general models of emplacement must be based on a comprehensive documentation of lava flow morphology from all CFB provinces.     

Basalts of the Eastern Deccan Volcanic Province,India

The Mandla lobe in the eastern part of the Deccan volcanic province represents an isolated lava pile having a thickness of ∼900 m. The large thickness of this lava pile and its spatial detachment from the western Deccan outcrop points to a plausible second source. The stratigraphic configuration of the central and eastern Deccan lava sequences and their possible stratigraphic correlation are primarily based on geology and chemical signatures of the lava flows. Based on variations in the incompatible element ratios, the lava sequences of Chindwara, Jabalpur-Seoni and Jabalpur-Piparia sections were classified into four informal formations showing similarity with the southwestern formations. Major and trace element abundances in fifteen lava flows of Jabalpur area are similar to that of the southwestern Deccan lava flows. It has been found that the Ambenali Fm. and a few Khandala and Bushe Fm. flows are present in the northeastern Deccan. The regional mapping and detailed petrographic studies coupled with the lateral tracing have enabled the recognition of thirty-seven physically distinct lava flows and is justified by their major-elemental chemistry. The ‘intraflow variations’ studied in some of the flows is very low for most of the major oxides. These thirty-seven lava flows are grouped into eight chemical types. The order of superposition in this sequence reflects that the older flows occur in the west of the outlier at the Seoni-Jabalpur-Sahapura sector whereas, the younger flows are confined to the Dindori-Amarkantak sector in the east. The spatial disposition of the lava flows suggests that the structural complexity in the lava flow sequence in the Mandla lobe lies between Jabalpur and Dindori. The juxtaposition of distinct groups of lava flows are observed near Deori (flows 1 to 4 abeted aginst flows 5 to 14) and Dindori areas. At Dindori and towards its south the distinct lava packages (flows 15 to 27 and flows 28 to 37) are juxtaposed along the course of Narmada river. The possible explanation for this could be the presence of four post-Deccan faults at Nagapahar, Kundam, Deori and Dindori areas. The vertical shift of chemically distinct lava packages at different sectors in the outlier contravenes the idea of small regional dip and favours the presence of four NE-SW trending post-Deccan faults. Major geochemical breaks, when traced out from section to section, exhibit shifting in heights by approximately 150 m near Nagapahar and 300 m near Deori and Dindori areas. The field, petrographic and major-oxide data sets considered in conjuction with the magnetic chron reversal heights, support the inference that four faults trending NE-SW are present in the Mandla lobe.A commonality in the mineralo-chemical attributes of the infra (Lametas)-/inter-trappean as well as weathered Deccan basalt further favours their derivation from Deccan basalt, implying the availability of Deccan basalt during the Maastrichtian Lameta sedimentation. This observation does not match with the models suggesting an extremely short duration of Deccan volcanism (<0.5 Ma) at the KTB, but is congruent with the models advocating a more prolonged Deccan volcanism.     

Volcanology and lava flow morpho-types from the Koyna-Warna region,western Deccan Traps,India

Flow mapping and physical volcanology of 15 basaltic lavas exposed in three critical road pass sections (ghats) in the Koyna-Warna region of the western Deccan Traps is presented in this paper. Transitional lavas like rubbly pahoehoe are most common morpho-type exposed in these ghat sections. Sinking of rubbly breccia into flow interiors and formation of breccia-cored rosette are common in some lava flows. Few rubbly lavas exhibit slabby tendencies. The amount and nature of the associated rubble is variable and result from the mechanical fracturing and auto-brecciation of the upper vesicular crust in response to distinctive stages in the cooling, crystallization and emplacement history of individual lava flows. Occurrence of aa and pahoehoe morpho-types in the lava flow sequence is subordinate. Three prominent pahoehoe flows separated by red bole horizons are seen in the upper parts of the Kumbharli ghat. These are thick, P-type sheet pahoehoe. The pahoehoe lavas represent compound flow fields that grew by budding, endogenous lava transfer and inflation. Presence of pahoehoe lavas in the Koyna-Warna region hints at possible hitherto unrecorded southern extension of Bushe-like flow fields. This study reconfirms the existence of pahoehoe-slabby-rubbly-aa flow fields and transitions even in the upper echelons of the Deccan Trap stratigraphy. The study of morphology and internal structure of lava flows exposed at the ghat sections in the Koyna-Warna region could guide subsurface core-logging that is critical in deciphering the physical volcanology and emplacement dynamics of basaltic lava flows penetrated by drill holes sunk under the scientific deep drilling programme.     

On the genesis of lava cracks in Hawaii

The orientation structures of lava flows and lava cracks in Hawaii (Big Island) have been analysed statistically. It is shown that the lava flows do not follow epigenetic random directions, but instead follow channels that have been endogenically predesigned. Similarly, the cracks in these flows have consistent directions at 45° to the edges of the lava flows. Thus, these cracks are not simply ‘cooling joints’ but features that correspond to the edge-crevasses in glacier-flow: they are shearing phenomena that occur in a similar fashion in any plastic-type flow.     

Physical characteristics of a lava flow determined from thermal measurements at the lava’s surface

We consider the problem about determination of characteristics of a lava flow from the physical parameters measured on its surface. The problem is formulated as an inverse boundary problem for the model simulating the dynamics of a viscous heat-conducting incompressible inhomogeneous fluid, where, on the basis of additional data at one part of the model boundary, the missing conditions at another part of the boundary have to be determined, and then the characteristics of fluid in the entire model domain have to be reconstructed. The considered problem is ill-posed. We develop a numerical approach to the solution of the problem in the case of a steady-state flow. Assuming that the temperature and the heat flow are known at the upper surface of the lava, we determine the flow characteristics inside the lava. We compute model examples and show that the lava temperature and flow velocity can be determined with a high precision when the initial data are smooth or slightly noisy.