Simulation analysis on characteristics of land surface over western Qinghai-Xizang Plateau during freezing–thawing period

Using the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment—Asian Monsoon—Tibet Plateau Experiment (GAME-Tibet) observational data—from October 2002 through September 2003—of Gaize in the western Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP), the land-surface characteristics of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau are simulated by the improved land-surface model Common Land Model (CoLM). The results show that CoLM can reproduce the land-surface characteristics of plateau areas well. In the surface-energy balance of the western QXP in the winter half year, the sensible heat (SH) flux constituted the dominant energy, and the latent heat (LH, here and after) flux is very small. Although the LH flux nearly equals zero in freezing season, it cannot be ignored during the period of freezing–thawing in QXP. In the transition season from mid- to late-May, the frequent phase change of soil water that is caused by the freezing–thawing process leads to the increase of LH flux and decrease of the Bowen ratio. The simulation results also indicate that the changes of surface effective heat fluxes (SH and LH flux) are associated with precipitation and the frequent change between freezing and thawing processes in soil surface.     

Characteristics of land-atmosphere energy and turbulent fluxes over the plateau steppe in central Tibetan Plateau

The land-atmosphere energy and turbulence exchange is key to understanding land surface processes on the Tibetan Plateau(TP). Using observed data for Aug. 4 to Dec. 3, 2012 from the Bujiao observation point(BJ) of the Nagqu Plateau Climate and Environment Station(NPCE-BJ), different characteristics of the energy flux during the Asian summer monsoon(ASM) season and post-monsoon period were analyzed. This study outlines the impact of the ASM on energy fluxes in the central TP. It also demonstrates that the surface energy closure rate during the ASM season is higher than that of the post-monsoon period. Footprint modeling shows the distribution of data quality assessments(QA) and quality controls(QC) surrounding the observation point. The measured turbulent flux data at the NPCE-BJ site were highly representative of the target land-use type. The target surface contributed more to the fluxes under unstable conditions than under stable conditions. The main wind directions(180° and 210°) with the highest data density showed flux contributions reaching 100%, even under stable conditions. The lowest flux contributions were found in sectors with low data density, e.g., 90.4% in the 360° sector under stable conditions during the ASM season. Lastly, a surface energy water balance(SEWAB) model was used to gap-fill any absent or corrected turbulence data. The potential simulation error was also explored in this study. The Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficients(NSEs) of the observed fluxes with the SEWAB model runs were 0.78 for sensible heat flux and 0.63 for latent heat flux during the ASM season, but unrealistic values of-0.9 for latent heat flux during the post-monsoon period.     

植被动态控制黑河流域典型生态系统能量分配——观测及数值模拟（英文）

Understanding the controls on seasonal variation of energy partitioning and separation between canopy and soil surface are important for qualifying the vegetation feedback to climate system. Using observed day-to-day variations of energy balance components including net radiation, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux ground heat flux, and meteorological variables combined with an energy-balanced two-source model, energy partitioning were investigated at six sites in Heihe River Basin from 2014 to 2016. Bowen ratio(β) among the six sites exhibited significant seasonal variations while showed smaller inter-annual fluctuations. All ecosystems exhibit a "U-shaped" pattern, characterized by smaller value of β in growing season, with a minimum value in July, and fluctuating day to day. During the growing season, average Bowen ratio was the highest for the alpine swamp meadow(0.60 ± 0.30), followed by the desert riparian forest Populus euphratica(0.47 ± 0.72), the alpine desert(0.46 ± 0.10), the Tamarix ramosissima desert riparian shrub ecosystem(0.33 ± 0.57), alpine meadow ecosystem(0.32 ± 0.17), and cropland ecosystem(0.27 ± 0.46). The agreement of Bowen ratio between simulated and observed values demonstrated that the two-source model is a promising tool for energy partitioning and separation between canopy and soil surface. The importance of biophysical control explains the convergence of seasonal and annual patterns of Bowen ratio for all ecosystems, and the changes in Bowen ratio showed divergence among varied ecosystems because of different physiological responses to energy flow pathways between canopy and soil surface.     

基于遥感的黄河三角洲蒸散的动态分析

Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important parameter for water resource management. Compared to the traditional ET computation and measurement methods, the ET computation method based on remote sensing has the advantages of quickness, precision, raster mapping and regional scale. SEBAL, an ET computation model using remote sensing method is based on the surface energy balance equation which is a function of net radiance flux, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux and latent heat flux. The former three fluxes can be computed through the parameters retrieved from remote sensing image, then the latent heat flux can be obtained to provide energy for ET. Finally we can obtain the daily ET. In this study SEBAL was applied to compute ET in the Yellow River Delta of China where water resource faces a rigorous situation. Three Landsat TM images and meteorology data of 1999 were used for ET computation, and spatial and temporal change patterns of ET in the Yellow River Delta were analysed.     

土地利用动态变化的空间测算模型研究

The spatial calculating analysis model is based on GIS overlay. It will compartmentalize the land in research district into three spatial types: unchanged parts, converted parts and increased parts.By this method we can evaluate the numerical model and dynamic degree model for calculating land-use change rates. Furthermore, the paper raises the possibility of revising the calculating analysis model of spatial information in order to predicate more precisely the dynamic changing level of all types of land uses. In the most concrete terms, the model is used mainly to understand changed area and changed rates (increasing or decreasing) of different land types from microcosmic angle and establish spatial distribution and spatio-temporal principles of the changing urban lands. And we will try to find out why the situation can take place by combining social and economic situations. The result indicates the calculating analysis model of spatial information can derive more accurate procedure of spatial transference and increase of all kinds of land from microcosmic angle. By this model and technology we can conduct the research of land-use spatio-temporal structure evolution more systematically and more deeply, and can obtain a satisfactory result. The result will benefit the rational planning and management of urban land use of developed coastal areas in China in the future.     

Simulated effect of soil freeze-thaw process on surface hydrologic and thermal fluxes in frozen ground region of the Northern Hemisphere

Soil freeze-thaw process is closely related to surface energy budget,hydrological activity,and terrestrial ecosystems.In this study,two numerical experiments(including and excluding soil freeze-thaw process)were designed to examine the effect of soil freeze-thaw process on surface hydrologic and thermal fluxes in frozen ground region in the Northern Hemisphere based on the state-of-the-art Community Earth System Model version 1.0.5.Results show that in response to soil freeze-thaw process,the area averaged soil temperature in the shallow layer(0.0175?0.0451 m)decreases by 0.35℃in the TP(Tibetan Plateau),0.69℃in CES(Central and Eastern Siberia),and 0.6℃in NA(North America)during summer,and increases by 1.93℃in the TP,2.28℃in CES and 1.61℃in NA during winter,respectively.Meanwhile,in response to soil freeze-thaw process,the area averaged soil liquid water content increases in summer and decrease in winter.For surface heat flux components,the ground heat flux is most significantly affected by the freeze-thaw process in both summer and winter,followed by sensible heat flux and latent heat flux in summer.In the TP area,the ground heat flux increases by 2.82 W/m2(28.5%)in summer and decreases by 3.63 W/m2(40%)in winter.Meanwhile,in CES,the ground heat flux increases by 1.89 W/m2(11.3%)in summer and decreases by 1.41 W/m2(18.6%)in winter.The heat fluxes in the Tibetan Plateau are more susceptible to the freeze-thaw process compared with the high-latitude frozen soil regions.Soil freeze-thaw process can induce significant warming in the Tibetan Plateau in winter.Also,this process induces significant cooling in high-latitude regions in summer.The frozen ground can prevent soil liquid water from infiltrating to deep soil layers at the beginning of thawing;however,as the frozen ground thaws continuously,the infiltration of the liquid water increases and the deep soil can store water like a sponge,accompanied by decreasing surface runoff.The influence of the soil freeze-thaw process on surface hydrologic and thermal fluxes varies seasonally and spatially.     

The application and comparison of several flux profile relations in CoLM

This paper discusses the important role that flux profile relations play in momentum flux, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux simulations in CoLM （Common Land Model） and compares the application of three flux profile relation schemes in CoLM by means of the Loess Plateau Land-Atmosphere Interaction Pilot Experiment （LOPEX） of 2005. It reveals that the results simulated by the model barely changed in the original flux profile schemes of the models a~er eliminating the very stable condition and the very unstable condition, and there were only tiny changes in numerical values. This indicates that the corrected terms added to fm（ξm）,fh（ξh） were very tiny and can be ignored under very stable and very unstable circumstances. According to a comparison of the three flux profile relations, the simulation results were basically coherent by using any CoLM： the correlation coefficient of the simulation value and the observed value was 0.89, and this bears on the coherence with the numerical procedures for the flux pro- file relations under unstable circumstances. The simulation results were improved considerably by utilizing the Lobocki flux pro- file schemes, which numerical procedures under unstable circumstances differed significantly fi＇om other three flux profile schemes; in this case the correlation coefficient of the value of simulation and the observed value became 0.95. In the next itera- tion of this study, it will be of great importance for the development of the land surface process model to continue experimenting with the application of some novel flux profile schemes in the land surface process models in typical regions.     

中国中、东部典型样区不同发展水平下土壤与土地利用多样性的对比分析(英文)

Two typical provincial capitals (Nanjing and Zhengzhou) and two counties (Rugao and Yuanyang) in east (Jiangsu Province) and central (Henan Province) China were chosen respectively as the developed and less developed comparative cases for pedodiversity and land use diversity correlative analysis by borrowing the recently better developed pedodiversity methodology. Land use classification was worked out using remote sensing images in three different periods (1986-1988, 2000-2001 and 2004-2006) for these studied case areas before the calculation of the constituent diversity index and spatial distribution diversity index modified after Shannon entropy in 2 km×2 km grid scale of the soil and land use pattern were conducted and then a connection index was proposed to evaluate the relationship between soil and land use diversity. Results show that during the years from 1986 to 2006, the composition and spatial distribution of regional land use pattern had changed greatly. The agricultural land area of all the studied case areas decreased obviously in which Nanjing has the highest decrement of 895.98 km 2 mainly into urban use while the other land use type area changes show the same trend. The connection index of four typical soil family types and typical urban land use types, i.e., urban construction land, transportation land and industrial and mining area all increased in this period. In the studied case areas, there is the highest soil constituent diversity in Zhengzhou at 0.779 while the simplest soil constituent diversity in Rugao at 0.582. Meanwhile we have higher land use diversity in the more urbanized Jiangsu Province than Henan Province, Nanjing is ranking the first that has been getting higher and higher in the three periods at 0.366 in 1986-1988, 0.483 in 2000-2001 and 0.545 in 2004-2006. Finally, the connection index figures to evaluate the relationship between soil and land use diversity of the studied areas were compared to show the similar phenomenon that this figure grows fastest in Nanjing followed by Zhengzhou and other places.     

1978–2010年中国与美国都市区城市内部土地覆盖时空特征(英文)

Urban land cover has major impacts on a city’s ecosystem services and the inherent quality of its urban residential environment. The spatio-temporal distribution of impervious surface area and green areas in Chinese cities has exhibited a significantly marked difference in comparison with USA cities. This study focused on monitoring and comparing the spatio-temporal dynamics, land cover patterns and characteristics of functional regions in six Chinese(n=3) and USA(n=3) cities. The study data were collated from Landsat TM/MSS imagery during the period 1978–2010. Results indicate that Chinese cities have developed compactly over the past three decades, while development has been notably dispersed among USA cities. Mean vegetation coverage in USA cities is approximately 2.2 times that found amongst Chinese urban agglomerations. Land use types within Chinese cities are significantly more complex, with a higher density of impervious surface area. Conversely, the central business district(CBD) and residential areas within USA cities were comprised of a lower proportion of impervious surface area and a higher proportion of green land. Results may be used to contribute to future urban planning and administration efforts in both China and the USA.     

近10年洞庭湖区土地利用变化时空特征

The research on the land use/cover change is one of the frontiers and the hot spots in the global change research. Based on the Chinese resource and environment spatial-temporal database,and using the Landsat TM and ETM data of 1990 and 2000 respectively, we analyzed the spatial-temporal characteristics of land use/cover changes in the Dongting Lake area during the last decade. The result shows that during the last ten years there were three land-use types that had changed remarkably. The cultivated land decreased by 0.57% of the total cultivated land. The built-up land and water area expanded, with an increase of 8.97% and 0.43% respectively. The conversion between land use types mostly happened among these three land-use types, especially frequently between cultivated land and water area. The land-use change speed of land-use type is different. Three cities experienced the greatest degree of land-use change among all the administrative districts, which means that the land use in these cities changed much quickly. The following changed area was the west and south of the Dongting Lake area. The slowest changed area is the north and east area.     

城市地表热通量遥感反演及与下垫面关系分析

选择日本埼玉县熊谷市为研究区,应用ASTER热红外遥感图像,采用PCACA模型以及理论定位算法,对城市地表热通量的相关参数进行反演,进而分析城市下垫面不同土地覆盖类型对地表热通量以及能量平衡的影响.结果表明,PCACA模型应用于城市区域地表通量估算是可行的.这种算法可以大大减少在下垫面结构复杂的城市区域进行地表热通量估算时所需的参数,并有效降低研究结果的不确定性.研究发现,城乡不同下垫面地表覆盖类型对地表热通量的影响差异显著.不同地表下垫面类型的波文比由大到小顺序依次为:工业用地＞住宅用地＞交通用地＞公共设施用地＞旱田＞公共绿地＞水域.在相同的外部气象条件下,与城市周边的植被覆盖区相比,城市人工建筑用地具有较高的显热通量,较低的潜热通量,以及较高的波文比.由于城市地表显热通量和波文比明显高于周边植被覆盖地表,导致城市地表向低层大气供热的增加,这是城市热岛效应形成的重要机制之一.     

沙漠腹地人工绿地地表能量交换特征

运用涡度相关法开路系统对塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地人工灌溉绿地生长季地表能量交换特征以及与环境因子的关系进行测定分析。结果表明：在典型晴天条件下,无论是沙漠区还是沙漠腹地灌溉绿地,白天感热通量在净辐射通量的分配中所占的份额最大,潜热交换仅占很小的比例,人工绿地感热通量和潜热通量的峰值为230.54 W/m²和88.5 W/m²,沙漠区为220 W/m²和17.55 W/m²,沙漠腹地人工灌溉造林后潜热交换明显增加。沙漠腹地造林后,绿地波文比日变幅和日均波文比均减小,绿地日均波文比为沙漠区的15%,人工绿地的营建促使了局地气候的改变。绿地地表能量交换受气象因子和下垫面条件的影响和制约,按相关系数的高低,环境因子对感热、潜热通量的影响依次为：Rn>△Ta>△TS>v>TS,沙漠区人工造林后地表能量交换与多个环境因子有着密切的关系。这些研究结果将加深我们对沙漠地区人工灌溉造林地近地层能量交换的认识。     

天山北坡低山丘陵干草原生长季蒸散特征

基于HL20波文比系统获得了天山北坡低山丘陵干草原2013-2015年的能量、气象观测数据,采用波文比-能量平衡法对其生长季（4～10月）蒸散特征进行了分析。结果表明：（1）生长季蒸散日内变化总体呈现中午最高、早晚变小和夜间蒸散微弱的特征,阴雨天蒸散日内变化相对复杂,蒸散强度通常弱于晴天;2013-2015年生长季蒸散量平均值为353.2 mm,生长季蒸散量在不同年份、不同季节和不同月份差异较大;2013-2015年生长季凝结水占降水量的比例分别为9.7%,18.8%和16.8%,日均凝结水量分别为0.177 mm,0.179 mm和0.316 mm。（2）生长季潜热和感热占据了净辐射能的主体且总体上潜热小于感热,白天潜热最大值出现之前,潜热会出现短暂小幅降低的情况。生长季感热和潜热逐日对比变化与植被长势密切相关。（3）波文比在夜间波动较大,变化复杂,白天上午波文比从负值增大到<1的正值,再到>1的正值,中午波文比为>1的正值,20：00左右波文比值开始回落。     

土地利用类型转换对地表能量平衡和气候的影响——基于SiB2模型的模拟结果

利用SiB2 模型对中国东北地区农田、草地和森林3 种土地利用类型的地表能量平衡过程展开研究,分析不同土地利用类型对生物地球物理参数（反照率和粗糙度）、能量平衡（净辐射、潜热和显热）和气候（冠层温度）的影响。结果表明：①模型模拟的地表能量平衡与实测数据的年变化动态相似（R²>0.42）,差值保持在±30 W/m²,温度在±4 ℃。②利用相同气象数据模拟不同土地利用类型通过生物地球物理过程对地表能量平衡和气候的影响,发现森林吸收的净辐射最高且主要用于潜热分配,农田的净辐射最低且主要用于显热分配,草地净辐射和能量分配居中。③生态系统获得的净辐射主要受反照率的影响,净辐射分配受叶面积指数的调节。④冠层温度（℃）受反照率和净辐射在潜热和显热间分配的相对重要性的影响：年平均值为森林（7.7）>农田（7.64）>草地（6.67）。⑤降水对模拟结果有显著影响,是森林模拟差异的主要原因。在不同土地利用类型中,降水增加土壤水分,净辐射更多分配到潜热,较少分配到显热,降低冠层温度。     

地表通量研究进展

通过对国内外地表通量中的显热和潜热通量的研究进展从试验仪器、计算模型和遥感反演三个方面分别进行综述。目前广泛应用于地表通量研究的仪器有波文比、涡度相关仪和闪烁通量仪。计算模型主要有涡度相关法，波文比法、空气动力学法，能量平衡一空气动力学阻抗法(即遥感法)、Penman—Monteith模型、互补相关模型和SR模型等。遥感反演主要立足于地表热量平衡方程，通过反演方程中的净辐射、土壤热流量和显热通量，进而推算出潜热通量。在最后还对目前地表通量研究中的热点问题进行了分析。     

绿洲-荒漠交界处蒸发与地表热量平衡分析

本文利用波文比方法对绿洲－荒漠交界处的绿洲和荒漠的蒸发和地表热量平衡过程进行了探讨．结果表明，波文比方法对于绿洲适用而于荒漠却不适用．     

灌溉在现代绿洲维持与发展中的重要作用

灌溉是荒漠绿洲农业发展的根本,没有灌溉就没有干旱区农业。本文运用美国NCAR的非静力平衡中尺度模式MM5V3,模拟了1991年8月1日到11日张掖绿洲地表感热、潜热通量和波文比,模拟结果表明此模式可以较好地反映张掖绿洲地表能量及水汽交换状况。同时模拟了当水源被截断后,地表感热、潜热通量及波文比随时间的变化:潜热迅速下降,感热迅速上升,波文比绝对值也迅速增大。如不及时补充水,绿洲将最终退化为沙漠。模拟结果证明了:①在我国西北干旱区有水才有绿洲,无水便成沙漠,水是绿洲的生命线,灌溉是现代绿洲维持与发展的基础;②绿洲一旦因缺水而退化为沙漠,就很难恢复。     

城市不同下垫面的能量平衡及温度差异模拟

城市能量平衡是研究城市热岛效应的物理基础。利用北京市教学植物园2010年的实测数据,设置不同类型下垫面(植被覆盖类型:林地、草地和不透水层覆盖类型:道路、房屋),利用局地尺度城市气象参数化方案模拟并分析了相同气象条件和净辐射通量输入下,不同类型下垫面的显热、潜热通量及蒸散降温效应的差异。结果显示:(1)不同类型下垫面的各能量支出项有明显差异,植被覆盖区域和不透水层覆盖区域的波文比年均值分别为0.28和4.60,且在植被生长季差异较大;(2)城市扩展过程中道路、房屋替换林地、草地的过程,也是显热增加而潜热减少的过程。植被层向不透水层转换的过程中,显热通量年均增加32.74W/m²,潜热通量减少38.87W/m²,储热通量增加7.95W/m²;(3)理论上,植被蒸散的年降温效应使单位面积植被覆盖区域的气温比不透水层区域可低2.63℃。     

The influence of subtropical cold fronts on the surface energy balance of a semi-arid site

The passage of subtropical cold fronts through central Australia produces the only significant mesoscale meteorological features in the region. The interaction of these cold fronts with the surface energy balance strongly affects the local weather and climate. The surface energy balance was measured at a semi-arid site in Alice Springs, central Australia, to determine how it was influenced by the passage of subtropical cold fronts. Both Bowen ratio and eddy correlation methods were used. The daytime energy balance of the site showed high net radiation that was partitioned into 75% sensible heat flux and 25% soil heat flux with little or no latent heat flux. At night there was a large net radiative loss that was balanced primarily by a loss of heat from the soil. The cold fronts predominately passed through Alice Springs at night and showed a strong surface signature. The fronts brought moister air resulting in higher water vapour pressures during their passage. The nocturnal boundary layer was often disturbed as the front passed, resulting in warm, moist air being mixed down toward the land surface. Mixing decreased the soil heat flux and increased latent heat fluxes toward the surface. Moisture that accumulated at the surface at these times was often evaporated after a return to drier conditions. During the daytime, surface signatures in soil and sensible heat fluxes were less distinct due to the strong convective mixing. Latent heat fluxes followed a similar trend to the nocturnal case.     

科尔沁沙地梯级生态带水热通量变化特征及气候学足迹

荒漠化地区水热通量变化特征和气候学足迹对理解干旱、半干旱区气候变化及水分循环具有重要意义。以科尔沁沙地一条梯级生态带为研究区，运用2017年3-12月大孔径闪烁仪和自动气象站数据对研究区不同时间尺度水热通量和通量源区的动态变化特征进行分析。结果表明：水热通量日变化特征明显，各分支能量占比不同。晴天近地表能量各项分支曲线均呈显著单峰状，多云天水热通量变化无显著规律；水热通量季节变化显著，夏季显热通量值小于春季、秋季和冬季，潜热通量夏季最大，其次为春季和秋季，冬季最小；小时尺度和日尺度上源区变化较大；季节尺度上，源区面积春季 > 秋季 > 夏季，季节尺度间源区差异较小时尺度和日尺度降低；结合梯级生态带内下垫面类型看，生长季源区以光径中段的玉米农田占比最大，沙丘和草甸下垫面次之，光径内小型湖泊所占源区比例较小。不同月份各下垫面类型占比略有不同。