Technico-economic analysis of off grid solar PV/Fuel cell energy system for residential community in desert region

A technico-economic analysis based on integrated modeling, simulation, and optimization approach is used in this study to design an off grid hybrid solar PV/Fuel Cell power system. The main objective is to optimize the design and develop dispatch control strategies of the standalone hybrid renewable power system to meet the desired electric load of a residential community located in a desert region. The effects of temperature and dust accumulation on the solar PV panels on the design and performance of the hybrid power system in a desert region is investigated. The goal of the proposed off-grid hybrid renewable energy system is to increase the penetration of renewable energy in the energy mix, reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, and lower the cost of energy from the power systems. Simulation, modeling, optimization and dispatch control strategies were used in this study to determine the performance and the cost of the proposed hybrid renewable power system. The simulation results show that the distributed power generation using solar PV and Fuel Cell energy systems integrated with an electrolyzer for hydrogen production and using cycle charging dispatch control strategy (the fuel cell will operate to meet the AC primary load and the surplus of electrical power is used to run the electrolyzer) offers the best performance. The hybrid power system was designed to meet the energy demand of 4500 kWh/day of the residential community (150 houses). The total power production from the distributed hybrid energy system was 52% from the solar PV, and 48% from the fuel cell. From the total electricity generated from the photovoltaic hydrogen fuel cell hybrid system, 80.70% is used to meet all the AC load of the residential community with negligible unmet AC primary load (0.08%), 14.08% is the input DC power for the electrolyzer for hydrogen production, 3.30% are the losses in the DC/AC inverter, and 1.84% is the excess power (dumped energy). The proposed off-grid hybrid renewable power system has 40.2% renewable fraction, is economically viable with a levelized cost of energy of 145 $/MWh and is environmentally friendly (zero carbon dioxide emissions during the electricity generation from the solar PV and Fuel Cell hybrid power system).     

Evaluation of strategic directions for supply and demand of green hydrogen in South Korea

Currently, worldwide efforts are being made to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement signed in 2015. Renewable energy, with solar and wind power as representative examples, focuses on hydrogen as a means of supplementing the intermittency in operation. Moreover, 17 advanced countries, including Australia and Europe, announced policies related to hydrogen, and Korea joined the ranks by announcing a roadmap to revitalize the hydrogen economy in 2019. As of 2020, the unit price of renewable energy in Korea is 0.1 $/kWh and 0.12 $/kWh for solar and wind power, respectively, which are more than five times higher than those of the world's best. The significant difference is due to the low utilization of power plants stemming from environmental factors. Consequently, securing the economic feasibility for the production of green hydrogen in Korea is difficult, and the evaluation of various policies is required to overcome these shortcomings. Currently, Korea's policy on renewable energy is focused on solar power, and despite the goal for a power generation of 57,483 GWh/year centered on offshore wind power by 2034, plans for utilization are lacking. By harnessing such energy, producing a percentage of the total green hydrogen required from the hydrogen economy roadmap can be realized, but securing economic feasibility may be difficult. Therefore, reinforcements in policies for the production of green hydrogen in Korea are required, and implementation of foreign policies for overseas cooperation in hydrogen production and import is necessary.     

Sustainable energy planning based on a stand-alone hybrid renewableenergy/hydrogen power system: Application in Karpathos island, Greece

This study presents the sustainable planning of a renewables-based energy system, which aims to fulfil the electric needs of the island by replacing the existing diesel generators with new wind farms, photovoltaic installations and hydrogen production systems. Electric system design and least cost planning analysis were concluded using historic data from both demand and supply sides. An optimal “sustainable island” scheme should ensure 100% use of renewable energy resources for power generation, while hydrogen production is ideal for covering storage and transportation needs. Due to its morphology and scale, Karpathos applies perfectly for wind and solar energy systems, due to increased solar resource (about 1790 kWh/m².year of global irradiation) and high wind potential (average of 9 m/s in specific locations). Therefore, this case study examines an increase in RES penetration up to 20% in the electric energy mixture, a hydrogen production plan just for the needs of transport and a more aggressive, 100% renewables scheme that ensures a self-fulfilling energy system based on indigenous renewable resources.     

Techno-economic evaluation of a grid-connected PV-trigeneration-hydrogen production hybrid system on a university campus

Many universities have plans to reduce campus energy consumption with developed energy efficiency strategies, supply the energy needs of the university campus with renewable energy and create a green campus. In order to serve this purpose, this study focuses on the simulation of the installation of an on-grid photovoltaic (PV) power system at the Vocational Colleges Campus, Hitit University. On the other hand, the integration of the simulated PV system with a gas fired-trigeneration system is discussed. Moreover, the study explores opportunities for solar hydrogen generation without energy storage on campus. For the PV system simulation, three different scenarios were created by using web-based PV system design software (HelioScope). Installed powers in the simulation were found as 94.2 kWe, 123.9 kWe, and 157.5 kWe for the low scenario (on the rooftop), high scenario (on the rooftop), and the high + PV canopy arrays scenario (on the rooftop and an outdoor parking area), respectively. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) values were 0.061 $/kWh, 0.065 $/kWh, and 0.063 $/kWh for the low scenario, high scenario, and the scenario including PV canopy, respectively. The energy payback time is found to be 6.47–6.94 years for the 20–25 years lifetime of the PV plant. The simulation results showed that the PV system could support it by generating additional electrical energy up to 25% of the existing system. The campus can reduce GHG emissions of 1546–2272 tonnes-CO₂eq, which is equivalent to 142–209 ha of forest-absorbing carbon unused during the life of the PV system. Depending on the production and consumption methods utilized on campus, which is a location with relatively large solar potential, the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) of hydrogen generation ranged from 0.054 $/kWhH₂ (1.78 $/kgH₂) to 0.103 $/kWhH₂ (3.4 $/kgH₂). Consequently, with proper planning and design, a grid-connected PV-trigeneration-hydrogen generation hybrid system on a university campus may operate successfully.     

Off-grid hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen storage for South African rural community health clinic

Most inhabitants of rural communities in Africa lack access to clean and reliable electricity. This has deprived the rural dwellers access to modern healthcare delivery. In this paper, an off-grid renewable energy system consisting of solar PV and wind turbine with hydrogen storage scheme has been explored to meet the electrical energy demands of a health clinic. The health clinic proposed is a group II with 10 beds located in a typical village in South Africa. First, the wind and solar energy resources of the village were analysed. Thereafter, the microgrid architecture that would meet the energy demand of the clinic (18.67 kWh/day) was determined. Some of the key results reveal that the average annual wind speed at 60 m anemometer height and solar irradiation of the village are 7.9 m/s and 4.779 kWh/m²/day, respectively. The required architecture for the clinic composes of 40 kW solar PV system, 3 numbers of 10 kW wind turbines, 8.6 kW fuel cell, 25 kW electrolyser and 40 kg hydrogen tank capacity. The capital cost of the microgrid was found to be $177,600 with a net present cost of $206,323. The levelised cost of energy of the system was determined to be 2.34 $/kWh. The project has a breakeven grid extension distance of 8.81 km. Since this distance is less than the nearest grid extension distance of 21.35 km, it is established that the proposed renewable energy microgrid with a hydrogen storage system is a viable option for the rural community health clinic.     

Development of an economical model to determine an appropriate feed-in tariff for grid-connected solar PV electricity in all states of Australia

Australia is a country with a vast amount of natural resources including sun and wind. Australia lies between latitude of 10–45°S and longitude of 112–152°E, with a daily solar exposure of between less than 3 MJ/(m² day) in winter and more than 30 MJ/(m² day) in summer.Global solar radiation in Australia varies between minimum of 3285 MJ/(m² year) in Hobart to 8760 MJ/(m² year) in Northern Territory. As a result of this wide range of radiation level there will be a big difference between costs of solar PV electricity in different locations.A study we have recently conducted on the solar PV electricity price in all states of Australia. For this purpose we have developed an economical model and a computer simulation to determine the accurate unit price of grid-connected roof-top solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity in A$/kWh for all state of Australia. The benefit of this computer simulation is that we can accurately determine the most appropriate feed-in tariff of grid-connected solar PV energy system. The main objective of this paper is to present the results of this study.A further objective of this paper is to present the details of the unit price of solar PV electricity in the state of Victoria in each month and then to compare with electricity price from conventional power systems, which is currently applied to this state. The state Victoria is located south of Australia and in terms of sun radiation is second lowest compared with the other Australian states.The computer simulation developed for this study makes it possible to determine the cost of grid-connected solar PV electricity at any location in any country based on availability of average daily solar exposure of each month as well as economical factors of the country.     

A mobile off-grid platform powered with photovoltaic/wind/battery/fuel cell hybrid power systems

Cross utilization of photovoltaic/wind/battery/fuel cell hybrid-power-system has been demonstrated to power an off-grid mobile living space. This concept shows that different renewable energy sources can be used simultaneously to power off-grid applications together with battery and hydrogen energy storage options. Photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy are used as primary sources and a fuel cell is used as backup power. A total of 2.7 kW energy production (wind and PV panels) along with 1.2 kW fuel cell power is supported with 17.2 kWh battery and 15 kWh hydrogen storage capacities. Supply/demand scenarios are prepared based on wind and solar data for Istanbul. Primary energy sources supply load and charge batteries. When there is energy excess, it is used to electrolyse water for hydrogen production, which in turn can either be used to power fuel cells or burnt as fuel by the hydrogen cooker. Power-to-gas and gas-to-power schemes are effectively utilized and shown in this study. Power demand by the installed equipment is supplied by batteries if no renewable energy is available. If there is high demand beyond battery capacity, fuel cell supplies energy in parallel. Automatic and manual controllable hydraulic systems are designed and installed to increase the photovoltaic efficiency by vertical axis control, to lift up & down wind turbine and to prevent vibrations on vehicle. Automatic control, data acquisition, monitoring, telemetry hardware and software are established. In order to increase public awareness of renewable energy sources and its applications, system has been demonstrated in various exhibitions, conferences, energy forums, universities, governmental and nongovernmental organizations in Turkey, Austria, United Arab Emirates and Romania.     

构建适应可再生能源资源特点的新型电力体系

从节能减排、重构能源供应体系出发,阐述了可再生能源在未来能源体系中的作用,分析了可再生能源发展面临的主要制约因素,提出构建适应可再生能源资源特点的新型电力系统主要措施,强调构建新型电力系统既要保障电力系统的安全可靠运行,又要充分发挥可再生新能源清洁环保的作用,推动能源体系由以石化能源为主向以可再生能源为主的转变。     

Economic perspective of PV electricity in Oman

Solar and wind energies are likely to play an important role in the future energy generation in Oman. This paper utilizes average daily global solar radiation and sunshine duration data of 25 locations in Oman to study the economic prospects of solar energy. The study considers a solar PV power plant of 5-MW at each of the 25 locations. The global solar radiation varies between slightly greater than 4 kWh/m²/day at Sur to about 6 kWh/m²/day at Marmul while the average value in the 25 locations is more than 5 kWh/m²/day. The results show that the renewable energy produced each year from the PV power plant varies between 9000 MWh at Marmul and 6200 MWh at Sur while the mean value is 7700 MWh of all the 25 locations. The capacity factor of PV plant varies between 20% and 14% and the cost of electricity varies between 210 US$/MWh and 304 US$/MWh for the best location to the least attractive location, respectively. The study has also found that the PV energy at the best location is competitive with diesel generation without including the externality costs of diesel. Renewable energy support policies that can be implemented in Oman are also discussed.     

Constructing an innovative Bio-Hydrogen Integrated Renewable Energy System

Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRES) offer alternative energy options that deliver distributed power generation for isolated loads. However, the production of energy from both wind turbines and solar PV systems is weather-dependent. In this study, we developed an innovative Bio-Hydrogen Integrated Renewable Energy System (BHIRES) based on the integration of hydrogen generation from biomass fermentation, renewable energy power generation, hydrogen generation from water electrolysis, a hydrogen storage device, and a fuel cell providing combined heat and power. BHIRES can provide electric power, thermal energy, and hydrogen, with the additional function of processing biomass waste and wastewater. As indicated by results of the economic analysis conducted in this study, the cost of electricity and the average energy cost of using BHIRES are both lower than those for wind/PV/hydrogen HRES. Therefore, this system is ideal for users in remote areas such as islands, and farms in mountainous areas.     

力促大规模非水可再生能源发展

综述了我国能源与电力可持续发展的现状和未来,着重阐述了风力发电、光伏发电、太阳能热发电等可再生能源发电发展的主要特点和问题,最后建议加快规划与部署建设以可再生能源为主体的综合能源基地,积极构建我国能源可持续发展体系。     

Thermodynamic performance comparison of SOFC-MGT-CCHP systems coupled with two different solar methane steam reforming processes

Multi-energy complementary distributed energy system integrated with renewable energy is at the forefront of energy sustainable development and is an important way to achieve energy conservation and emission reduction. A comparative analysis of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)-micro gas turbine (MGT)-combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) systems coupled with two solar methane steam reforming processes is presented in terms of energy, exergy, environmental and economic performances in this paper. The first is to couple with the traditional solar methane steam reforming process. Then the produced hydrogen-rich syngas is directly sent into the SOFC anode to produce electricity. The second is to couple with the medium-temperature solar methane membrane separation and reforming process. The produced pure hydrogen enters the SOFC anode to generate electricity, and the remaining small amount of fuel gas enters the afterburner to increase the exhaust gas enthalpy. Both systems transfer the low-grade solar energy to high-grade hydrogen, and then orderly release energy in the systems. The research results show that the solar thermochemical efficiency, energy efficiency and exergy efficiency of the second system reach 52.20%, 77.97% and 57.29%, respectively, 19.05%, 7.51% and 3.63% higher than those of the first system, respectively. Exergy analysis results indicate that both the solar heat collection process and the SOFC electrochemical process have larger exergy destruction. The levelized cost of products of the first system is about 0.0735$/h that is lower than that of the second system. And these two new systems have less environmental impact, with specific CO₂ emissions of 236.98 g/kWh and 249.89 g/kWh, respectively.     

Management of photovoltaic excess electricity generation via the power to hydrogen concept: A year-round dynamic assessment using Artificial Neural Networks

This paper assesses energetically and economically the power-to-hydrogen concept by exploring the excess power resulting from the mismatch between the photovoltaic (PV) generation and the electric demand of a medium-size commercial structure located in Morocco. The variability in the building electric load is considered and the power flows from the PV field to the building are predicted using Artificial Neural Networks for a time-resolution of 15 min. A MATLAB code was implemented to estimate the instantaneous hydrogen production based on a semi-empirical mathematical formulation of an Alkaline type electrolyzer with a nominal capacity of 15 kW. These combined approaches are for the first time adopted to evaluate the feasibility of integrated PV hydrogen systems under the Moroccan context. Using a set of 5 electrolyzers coupled to the 104 kW_p currently installed solar PV field, it was possible to generate about 18,622 Nm³/year of hydrogen by exploring the PV excess power. The overall efficiency of the integrated system ranged from 9.5% (in March) to 10.1% (in May). Such an approach allowed enhancing the effective efficiency and capacity factor to values of 9.873% and 26.87%, respectively compared to 6.325% and 10.163% for the base case scenario without hydrogen systems. From an economic perspective, it was found that the integrated PV-hydrogen plant engendered levelized cost of electricity and hydrogen of 12.56 c$/kWh and 21.55 $/kg, respectively.     

Optimisation of solar-hydrogen power system for household applications

A numerical method was developed for optimising solar–hydrogen energy system to supply renewable energy for typical household connected with the grid. The considered case study involved household located in Diyala Governorate, Iraq. The solar–hydrogen energy system was designed to meet the desired electrical load and increase the renewable energy fraction using optimum fuel cell capacity. The simulation process was conducted by MATLAB based on the experimental data for electrical load, solar radiation and ambient temperature at a 1-min time-step resolution. Results demonstrated that the optimum fuel cell capacity was approximately 2.25 kW at 1.8 kW photovoltaic power system based on the average of the daily energy consumption of 6.8 kWh. The yearly renewable energy fraction increased from 31.82% to 95.82% due to the integration of the photovoltaic system with a 2.25 kW fuel cell used as a robust energy storage unit. In addition, the energy supply, which is the economic aspect for the optimum system, levelised electricity cost by approximately $0.195/kWh. The obtained results showed that the proposed numerical analysis methodology offers a distinctive property that can be used effectively to optimise hybrid renewable energy systems.     

Expanding photovoltaic penetration with residential distributed generation from hybrid solar photovoltaic and combined heat and power systems

The recent development of small scale combined heat and power (CHP) systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power backup of residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays. This paper investigates the potential of deploying a distributed network of PV + CHP hybrid systems in order to increase the PV penetration level in the U.S. The temporal distribution of solar flux, electrical and heating requirements for representative U.S. single family residences were analyzed and the results clearly show that hybridizing CHP with PV can enable additional PV deployment above what is possible with a conventional centralized electric generation system. The technical evolution of such PV + CHP hybrid systems was developed from the present (near market) technology through four generations, which enable high utilization rates of both PV-generated electricity and CHP-generated heat. A method to determine the maximum percent of PV-generated electricity on the grid without energy storage was derived and applied to an example area. The results show that a PV + CHP hybrid system not only has the potential to radically reduce energy waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems, but it also enables the share of solar PV to be expanded by about a factor of five.     

Assessment of renewable energy reserves in Taiwan

Since Taiwan imports more than 99% of energy supply from foreign countries, energy security has always been the first priority for government to formulate energy policy. The development of renewable energy not only contributes to the independence of energy supply, but also achieves benefits of economic development and environmental protection. Based upon information available to public, the present paper reassesses reserves of various renewable energies in Taiwan. The assessment includes seven kinds of renewable energies, namely, solar energy, wind power, biomass energy, wave energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and hydropower, which are all commercialized and matured in terms of current technologies. Other renewable energies, which have not proven as matured as the aforementioned ones, are only assessed preliminarily in this paper, such as second generation of biomass, deep geothermal energy, the Kuroshio power generation and ocean thermal energy conversion.According to the estimation of this paper, the reserve of wind energy, up to 29.9 kWh/d/p (i.e., kWh per day per person), is the largest one among seven kinds of renewable energies in Taiwan, followed by 24.27 kWh/d/p of solar energy, 4.55 kWh/d/p of biomass, 4.58 kWh/d/p of ocean energy, 0.67 kWh/d/p of geothermal energy and 16.79 kWh/d/p of hydropower. If regarding biomass as a primary energy, and assuming 40% being the average efficiency to convert primary energy into electricity, the total power of the seven kinds of renewable energy reserves is about 78.03 kWh/d/p, which is equal to 2.75 times of 28.35 kWh/d/p of national power generation in 2008. If the reserves of 54.93 kWh/d/p estimated from other four kinds of renewable energies that have not technically matured yet are also taken into account, it will result that the reserves of renewable energy in Taiwan can be quite abundant.Although the results of the assessment point out that Taiwan has abundant renewable energy resources, the four inherent shortcomings – low energy density, high cost of power generation, instability of power supply, and current cost of renewable energy being still higher than that of fossil energy – have to be overcome first, before renewable energy is actually formed as a main component in national energy mix. The measures executed by government to break through these barriers further include the upgrade of the technological level, the formulation of the necessary policies, and the work together from all levels for the overall promotion.     

Spatial mapping of renewable energy potential

An energy resource that is renewed by nature and whose supply is not affected by the rate of consumption is often termed as renewable energy. The need to search for renewable, alternate and non-polluting sources of energy assumes top priority for self-reliance in the regional energy supply. This demands an estimation of available energy resources spatially to evolve better management strategies for ensuring sustainability of resources. The spatial mapping of availability and demand of energy resources would help in the integrated regional energy planning through an appropriate energy supply–demand matching. This paper discusses the application of Geographical Information System (GIS) to map the renewable energy potential talukwise in Karnataka State, India. Taluk is an administrative division in the federal set-up in India to implement developmental programmes like dissemination of biogas, improved stoves, etc. Hence, this paper focuses talukwise mapping of renewable energy (solar, wind, bioenergy and small hydroenergy) potential for Karnataka using GIS. GIS helps in spatial and temporal analyses of the resources and demand and also aids as Decision Support System while implementing location-specific renewable energy technologies.Regions suitable for tapping solar energy are mapped based on global solar radiation data, which provides a picture of the potential. Coastal taluks in Uttara Kannada have higher global solar radiation during summer (6.31 kWh/m²), monsoon (4.16 kWh/m²) and winter (5.48 kWh/m²). Mapping of regions suitable for tapping wind energy has been done based on wind velocity data, and it shows that Chikkodi taluk, Belgaum district, has higher potential during summer (6.06 m/s), monsoon (8.27 m/s) and winter (5.19 m/s). Mysore district has the maximum number of small hydropower plants with a capacity of 36 MW. Talukwise computation of bioenergy availability from agricultural residue, forest, horticulture, plantation and livestock indicates that Channagiri taluk in Shimoga district yields maximum bioenergy. The bioenergy status analysis shows that Siddapur taluk in Uttara Kannada district has the highest bioenergy status of 2.004 (ratio of bioresource availability and demand).     

Design and simulation of the PV/PEM fuel cell based hybrid energy system using MATLAB/Simulink for greenhouse application

In this study, design and optimization of the hybrid renewable energy system consisting of Photovoltaic (PV)/Electrolyzer/Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) was investigated to provide electricity and heat for Greenhouse in ?anl?urfa (Turkey). The coupling of a photovoltaic system with PEMFC was preferred to supply continuous production of electric energy throughout the year. Additionally, produced heat from PEMFC was used to heating of the greenhouse by micro cogeneration application. The MATLAB/Simulink was applied to the design and optimization of the proposed hybrid system. In the designed system, solar energy was selected to produce the Hydrogen (H₂) required to run the electrolyzer. In cases where the solar energy is not sufficient and cannot meet the electricity requirement for the electrolyzer; the H₂ requirement for the operation of the PEMFC was met from the H₂ storage tanks and energy continuity was ensured. The electrolyzer was designed for H₂ demand of the 3 kW PEMFC which were met the greenhouse energy requirement. PEMFC based hybrid system has 48% electrical and 45% thermal efficiencies. According to optimization results obtained for the proposed hybrid system, the levelized cost of energy was found 0.117 $/kWh. The obtained results show the proposed PV/Electrolyzer/PEMFC hybrid power system provides an applicable option for powering stand-alone application in a self-sustainable expedient.     

Dimensioning of the solar heating system in the zero energy house in Denmark

The paper describes the project for a Zero Energy House constructed at the Technical University of Denmark. The house is designed and constructed in such a way that it can be heated all winter without any “artificial” energy supply, the main source being solar energy. With energy conservation arrangements, such as high-insulated constructions (30–40 cm mineral wool insulation), movable insulation of the windows and heat recovery in the ventilating system, the total heat requirement for space heating is calculated to 2300 kWh per year. For a typical, well insulated, one-storied, one-family house built in Denmark, the corresponding heat requirement is 20,000 kWh. The solar heating system is dimensioned to cover the heat requirements and the hot water supply for the Zero Energy House during the whole year on the basis of the weather data in the “Reference Year”. The solar heating system consists of a 42 m² flat-plate solar collector, a 30 m³ water storage tank (insulated with 60 cm of mineral wool), and a heat distribution system. A total heat balance is set up for the system and solved for each day of the “Reference Year”. Collected and accumulated solar energy in the system is about 7300 kWh per yr; 30 per cent of the collected energy is used for space heating, 30 per cent for hot water supply, and 40 per cent is heat loss from the accumulator tank. For the operation of the solar heating system, the pumps and valves need a conventional electric energy supply of 230 kWh per year (corresponding to 5 per cent of the useful solar energy).     

Comparative techno-economic study of typically combustion-less hydrogen production alternatives

A techno-economic study is performed for a large scale combustion-less hydrogen production process based on Steam Methane Reforming (SMR). Two process versions relying on different renewable heat sources are compared: (1) direct solar heating from a concentrated solar power system, and (2) radiation from resistive electrical heaters (electric SMR). Both processes are developed around an integrated micro-reactor technology, incorporating in a monolithic block most sub-processes needed to perform SMR. A baseline techno-economic scenario with low-cost feedstock and electricity, priced at $4/MMBtu and $0.04/kWh respectively, results in an LCOH of $2.31/kg_H2 for solar SMR and $1.59/kg_H2 for electric SMR. Results further show that solar SMR is currently more attractive economically than electric SMR coupled with distributed wind power systems, but electric SMR is more favourable in the long term due to the expected future improvements in the LCOE and capacity factor of wind power systems.