DOLOMITIZATION AND RELATED FLUID EVOLUTION IN THE OLIGOCENE – MIOCENE ASMARI FORMATION, GACHSARAN AREA, SW IRAN: PETROGRAPHIC AND ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE

Petrographic and stable isotope investigations of Oligocene‐Miocene carbonates in the Asmari Formation from the Gachsaran oilfield and surrounding area in SW Iran indicate that the carbonates have been subjected to extensive diagenesis including calcite cementation and dolomitization. Diagenetic modification occurred in different diagenetic realms ranging from marine, meteoric and finally burial. Asmari carbonates were in general deposited in a ramp setting and are represented by intertidal to subtidal deposits together with lagoonal, shoal and low‐energy deposits formed below normal wave base. Lithofacies include bioclastic grainstones, ooidal and bioclastic, foraminiferal and intraclastic packstones, and mudstones. Multiple episodes of calcite cementation, dolomitization and fracturing have affected these rocks to varying degrees and control porosity. Four types of dolomites have been identified: microcrystalline matrix replacement dolomite (D1); fine to medium crystalline matrix replacement dolomite (D2); coarse crystalline saddle‐like dolomite cement (D3); and coarse crystalline zoned dolomite cement (D4). Microcrystalline dolomites (D1) (6–12 μm) replacing micrite, allochems and calcite cements in the mud‐supported facies prior to early compaction show δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values of ?4.01 to +1.02‰ VPDB and ?0.30 to +4.08‰ VPDB, respectively. These values are slightly depleted with respect to postulated Oligocene‐Miocene marine carbonate values, suggesting their precipitation from seawater, partly altered by later fluids. The association of this type of dolomite with primary anhydrite in intertidal facies supports dolomitization by evaporative brines. Fine to medium crystalline matrix dolomites (D2) (20–60μm) occur mostly in grainstone facies and have relatively high porosities. These dolomites formed during early burial and could be considered as recrystallized forms of D1 dolomite. Their isotopic values overlap those of D1 dolomites, implying precipitation from similar early fluids, possibly altered by meteoric fluids. Coarse crystalline saddle‐like dolomites (D3) (200–300 μm) partially or completely occlude fractures and vugs. The vugs developed through the dissolution of carbonate components and rarely matrix carbonates, while fractures developed during Zagros folding in late Oligocene to early Miocene times. A final diagenetic episode is represented by the precipitation of coarse crystalline planar e‐s zoned dolomite (D4) (80–250 μm) that occurs in fractures and vugs and also replaces earlier dolomite and post‐dates stylolitization. Fluids responsible for the formation of D3 and D4 dolomites are affected by brine enrichment and increasing temperatures due to increasing burial. Reservoir porosity is dominated by microcrystalline pore spaces in muddy, dolomitized matrix and mouldic and vuggy porosity in grainstone. Porosity was significantly enhanced by the formation of multiple fracture systems.     

四川盆地北部栖霞组-茅口组热液白云岩特征与成因

以四川盆地北部广元峡沟煤矿剖面白云岩为研究对象,剖面由下部地层向上,白云岩化程度逐渐增强,颜色由深到浅,岩性由生屑灰岩逐渐过渡到斑状白云岩,然后再到中-粗晶白云岩,上部覆盖茅口组泥灰(云)岩。中-粗晶白云岩发育于栖霞组顶部和茅口组底部,由中晶到粗晶的半自形-自形白云石组成,其中可见鞍状白云石。岩石中溶蚀孔洞发育,孔隙内有沥青充填。微晶灰岩的δ¹³C(PDB)值为3.23‰,δ¹⁸O(PDB)值为-5.03‰;白云石样品的碳、氧同位素具有一定的差异,δ¹³C(PDB)值为3.29‰~4.14‰,δ¹⁸O(PDB)值为-6.07‰~-6.75‰。流体来源可能为岩浆热液,或者是经历了深循环的大气降水。在断裂活动时,深部热液流体沿断裂向上运移,当运移到栖霞组和茅口组时,由于吴家坪组泥灰岩和泥云岩的封堵,流体的运移被减缓甚至停滞,促使围岩发生白云岩化,溶蚀作用也同时发生,产生溶蚀孔隙。由此,在栖霞组顶部和茅口组底部可能形成热液白云岩储层,该储层具有一定的储集意义。     

ORIGIN OF THE MID-YPRESIAN JIRANI DOLOMITE — A MAJOR RESERVOIR ROCK IN THE NW LIBYA OFFSHORE

The Jirani Dolomite was formed during a major relative fall in sea-level in middle Ypresian (early Eocene) times, in shallow, hypersaline lagoons on a restricted shallow platform, where supretidal and intertidal and semi-arid to arid conditions prdominated. Localisation of the shallow logoonal facies to the region of the Jifarah Trough suggests that restriction was caused by downwarp relative to mild uplift of the Jifarah Platform to the north. Two main facies are recognised: and anhydritic dolomite facies, composed of dolomite and dolomitic limestone with anhydrite nodules; and a non-anhydritic dolomite faices, composed of dolomite and dolomitic limestone only. Lithologic and petrographic evidence leads to the conclusion that anhydrite was also present in the non-anhydritic dolomite facies initially, but was removed by dissolution processes. Petrographic studies show that dolomitisation proceeded in three stages. Stage I involved penecontemporaneous/early8 diagenetic dolomitisation of the precurosr limestones with gypsum/anhydrite under hypersaline seepage reflux conditions. Stage II dolomitisation, mainly confined to the non-anhydritic dolomite facies, was probably formed in the mixing zone between meteoric and sea water, probably at shallow depths of burial. Stage III dolomitisation occured at depth in the late stage of basin evolution, causing some infilling of mouldic and vuggy porosity by coarsely crystalline, saddle dolomite. Evidence of mixing zone dolomitisation indicates that the Jirani Dolomite was exosed subaerially. Studies of the Metlaoui Group show that this event can be related to a major relative fall in sea level in early Lutetian times following deposition of the Jdeir Formation. Exposure of the deposits to flushing by meteoric waters explains the dissolution of the anhydrite from the non-anhydritic dolomite faices, and the accentuation of the well-development porosity in this facies, which make it one of the most important reservoir rocks in the offshore region.     

Formation of fine crystalline dolomites in lacustrine carbonates of the Eocene Sikou Depression,Bohai Bay Basin,East China

The genesis of the fine crystalline dolomites that exhibit good to excellent reservoir properties in the upper fourth member of the Eocene Shahejie Formation(Es_4~s)around the Sikou Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, is uncertain. This paper investigates the formation mechanisms of this fine crystalline dolomite using XRD, SEM, thin section analysis and geochemical data. The stratigraphy of the Sikou lacustrine carbonate is dominated by the repetition of metre-scale, high-frequency deposition cycles, and the amount of dolomite within a cycle increases upward from the cycle bottom. These dolomite crystals are 2–30 μm in length, subhedral to anhedral in shape and typically replace both grains and matrix. They also occur as rim cement and have thin lamellae within ooid cortices. Textural relations indicate that the dolomite predates equant sparry calcite cement and coarse calcite cement. The Sr concentrations of dolomites range from 900 to 1200 ppm. Dolomite δ~(18)O values(-11.3 to-8.2 ‰ PDB) are depleted relative to calcite mudstone(-8.3 to-5.4 ‰ PDB) that precipitated from lake water, while δ~(13)C values(0.06–1.74 ‰ PDB) are within the normal range of calcite mudstone values(-2.13 to 1.99 ‰ PDB). High~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr values(0.710210–0.710844) indicate that amounts of Ca~(2+) and Mg~(2+)have been derived from the chemical weathering of Palaeozoic carbonate bedrocks. The high strontium concentration indicates that hypersaline conditions were maintainedduring the formation of the dolomites and that the dolomites were formed by the replacement of precursor calcite or by direct precipitation.     

鄂尔多斯盆地奥陶系马家沟组五段富铁白云石成因

鄂尔多斯盆地马家沟组五段白云岩,按照晶粒可分为两种类型：晶粒较细的M型微晶白云岩和晶粒相对较粗的F型粉细晶白云岩。这两类白云岩都具有较高的Fe含量,但Fe并不是均一分布的。在M型微晶白云岩中,基质白云石的铁含量为583×10^-6~3 811×10^-6,富铁白云石主要以膏溶铸模孔的孔隙充填物的形式存在,粗晶白云石充填物铁含量29 112×10^-6~47 148×10^-6,均匀分布于晶体之中;而粉晶白云石充填物,铁含量最可达81 752×10^-6,仅富集于白云石的边缘。在F型粉-细晶白云岩中,其基质白云石的铁含量为233×10^-6~2 007×10^-6;裂缝和孔隙内充填的白云石的铁含量较高,可达9 178×10^-6,均匀分布。铁的富集可能与孔隙的发育有一定联系。孔隙越发育,容易富集铁。M型微晶白云石的δ¹³C（V-PDB）值为-3.5‰~1.4‰,δ¹⁸O（V-PDB）值为-6.5‰~-8.0‰;孔隙充填物粉晶白云石δ¹³C（V-PDB）值为-0.7‰~-2.7‰,δ¹⁸O（V-PDB）值在-9.8‰~-11.5‰;粗晶白云石的δ¹³C（V-PDB）值范围为-1.7‰~-2.9‰,δ¹⁸O（V-PDB）值范围为-9.9‰~-11.3‰,可能受到过较高温度流体的影响。F型粉细晶白云岩的δ¹³C（V-PDB）值为-0.4‰~-0.8‰,δ¹⁸O（V-PDB）值为-5.3‰~-6.6‰,与海水较为接近。两类白云岩的Fe可能来源于上覆的铁质粘土岩。白云岩形成后,后经历了漫长的风化暴露剥蚀,形成了大量的储集空间,并残存形成了上覆铁质粘土岩。当再次进入埋藏期后,铁质粘土岩中富铁的流体在重力的作用下,向下部的地层运移,且到一定深度时,氧化态Fe³⁺转化为还原态的Fe²⁺,且已具有相对较高的地温,使得Fe²⁺更容易进入白云石晶格,形成了富铁的白云岩层系。     

STRONTIUM ISOTOPE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ASMARI FORMATION (OLIGOCENE - LOWER MIOCENE), SW IRAN

The Asmari Formation has been studied in the subsurface at the Bibi Hakimeh, Marun and Ahwaz oilfields and in an outcrop section from the Khaviz anticline. It consists of approximately 400 m of cyclic platform limestones and dolostones with subordinate intervals of sandstone and shale. The method of Sr‐isotope stratigraphy is well suited for dating these strata because of the rapid rate of change of marine ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr during Asmari deposition (roughly 32‐18 Ma) and the common presence of well‐preserved macrofossils. Profiles of age against depth in the four areas show a decrease from higher stratigraphic accumulation rates in the lower Asmari to lower rates in the middle to upper part of the formation. There is also a trend towards less open‐marine depositional conditions and increasing early dolomitization and anhydrite abundance above the lower part of the formation. These changes reflect the dynamics of platform progradation across the areas studied, from early deposition along relatively high accommodation margin to slope settings to later conditions of lower accommodation on the shelf top. Ages of sequence boundaries are estimated from the age‐depth profiles at each locality, providing a framework for stratigraphic correlation. Asmari deposition began in early Rupelian time (34‐33 Ma) in the Bibi Hakimeh area, when the studied areas to the NW were accumulating basinal marl facies. Progradation of the platform across the Marun and Ahwaz areas took place in mid‐Chattian time (27‐26 Ma) and somewhat later (26‐25 Ma) in the more basinward Khaviz area. Depositional sequences have durations of 1‐3 Ma, whereas component cycles represent average time intervals of 100‐300 Ky. Sr analyses of most dolomite, anhydrite and celestite samples plot close to or below the macrofossil age‐depth trend for each locality, indicating formation from waters preserving seawater ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr approximately contemporaneous with or slightly younger than the time of sediment deposition. Local deviations from this trend are interpreted as indicating episodes of seepage‐reflux and also a contribution of Sr from non‐marine sources during formation of the Gachsaran cap rock anhydrite.     

HYDROCARBON-INDUCED DIAGENETIC DOLOMITE AND PYRITE FORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE HORMOZ ISLAND SALT DOME,OFFSHORE IRAN

Hormoz Island, a salt diapir in the eastern Persian Gulf, is dominated by the Infracambrian Hormoz Complex comprising both evaporites (Hormoz Salt) and carbonates, siliciclastics and volcanic rocks. Minerals include black, white and grey dolomites, pyrite, gypsum, anhydrite, apatite and iron oxides. Formation of some of the dolomite crystals is interpreted to be linked to the oxidation of hydrocarbons. The δ¹³C values of black dolomite crystals range from −0.8 to −2.07‰ VPDB, indicating that little if any of their carbon is derived from hydrocarbon oxidation but that sea water has provided carbon and Mg for dolomite precipitation. The δ¹⁸O values for these dolomites range from −9.2 to −15.3‰ VPDB, reflecting a temperature effect on isotopic fractionation. By contrast, δ¹³C values for white to grey dolomites range from −17.81 to −35.68‰ VPDB, indicating that the carbon may be derived from the oxidation of hydrocarbons. Based on the δ¹⁸O_dolomite and temperatures obtained from fluid inclusion studies (215°C), the calculated δ¹⁸O_water in equilibrium with these dolomites (+2 < δ¹⁸O_fluid < +12‰) indicates the involvement of brines evolved via the interaction of seawater with the Hormoz Salt and associated sedimentary rocks. Some of the dolomite may have precipitated from post-Cambrian seawaters at lower temperatures (ca.100 °C). Thus, the dolomites may have begun to form during deep burial but have also formed during salt diapirism at more shallow depths. Pyrite and native sulphur are interpreted to have formed in reducing conditions where the source of sulphur was H₂S produced by the thermochemical reduction of sulphate in the Hormoz Salt evaporites. Heavy δ³⁴S values for the anhydrites (ranging from 28.7 to 30.8‰) and for sulphides (ranging from 17.2 to 23.4‰) preclude a major contribution of sulphur from volcanic sources or from Early Cambrian shales. Pyrites, apatites and dolomites formed at depth within the diapir. It is envisaged that hydrocarbons leaked along the flanks of the Hormoz Island salt dome, resulting in reducing conditions which promoted the formation of diagenetic minerals.     

川南地区灯影组白云岩地球化学特征及流体来源

四川盆地灯影组白云岩是重要的优质油气储集岩,由于复杂的成岩演化和多期的构造作用,白云岩的成因一直存在争议。通过碳、氧同位素、微量元素等分析手段,对川南地区灯影组白云岩的地球化学特征及流体来源进行了研究。研究结果表明,该区白云岩主要类型为微晶、细晶-中晶以及含角砾白云岩。灯影组白云岩的δ¹³C介于0.52‰~2.06‰（均值1.42‰）,δ¹⁸O介于-11.9‰~-2.14‰（均值-9.09‰）,与同期原始碳酸盐岩δ¹³C值（4.43‰）和δ¹⁸O值（-0.62‰）相比明显偏小。结合白云岩具有高U/Th比值、低Sr值以及Eu正异常等特征,认为研究区灯影组白云岩具有埋藏白云石化特征,且在成岩后期受到了热液流体作用的改造。该区白云岩具有与海水来源白云岩相似的稀土元素配分特征以及远高于正常海水的盐度指数（Z值）,表明白云岩化流体主要来源于封存在地层中的浓缩海水。     

鄂尔多斯盆地天环坳陷北段桌子山组白云岩碳氧同位素特征及意义

通过空间展布和不同类型白云岩的碳氧同位素特征,诠释了鄂尔多斯盆地西部天环坳陷北段奥陶系桌子山组白云岩的成因和储层地质学意义。研究区白云岩主要有微-粉晶白云岩、残余砂屑细晶白云岩和细-中晶白云岩3种,其中微-粉晶白云岩δ13C、δ18O平均值为0.78‰和-5.0‰;残余砂屑细晶白云岩δ13C、δ18O平均值为0.53‰和-6.5‰;细-中晶白云岩δ13C、δ18O平均值为0.47‰和-6.3‰。桌子山组白云岩碳氧同位素的组成位于正常海相碳酸盐岩范围之内,说明其白云石化流体来源于囚禁的古海水。白云岩碳氧同位素演化特征及成岩作用特征,指示微-粉晶白云岩为准同生阶段白云石化的产物,而残余砂屑细晶白云岩及细-中晶白云岩则为浅埋藏白云石化的产物。      

A NEW MODEL FOR THE FORMATION OF DOLOMITE IN THE TRIASSIC DOLOMITES,NORTHERN ITALY

The Pale di San Martino and Pale di San Lucano (referred to together as the “Pale”) are remnants of an originally more extensive carbonate platform in the Dolomite Mountains of northern Italy. The platforms are composed of Middle Triassic dolomites and limestones up to 1.6km thick. Limestones comprise 2–3% of the platform carbonates and are restricted to narrow corridors (tens to a few hundred metres wide, hundreds of metres long and high) within the dolomite. The mainly sucrosic dolomites of the Pale are interpreted as the result of recrystallization of a depositional, nearly stoichiometric Mg calcite under burial temperatures of ca. 40–70°C. The principal arguments are:

• The quantitative composition indicates that all platform carbonates are composed mainly of micritic crusts (45%; boundstone fabric prevails) and early cement (35%; microcrystalline, fibrous). The platform carbonates were probably mainly bacterial precipitates and tight at the sediment‐water interface (porosities <5%, permeabilities in the micro‐Darcy range).
• The limestone‐dolomite transitions (centimetres to decimetres wide) lack dolomite gradients. The lack of evidence for flowing fluids causing dolomitization suggests stagnant pore waters.
• The δ¹³C of average dolomite is 1.3‰ heavier than that of coeval limestone (666 analyses). The difference corresponds to a primary difference of 50mol% MgCO₃ and is interpreted as the result of fractionation. It suggests a dolomite precursor of very high Mg calcite, whereas present‐day limestone of the Pale was probably deposited as a basically Mg‐free polymorph (aragonite and/or calcite).
• The dolomite δ¹⁸O (+1 to ?11‰ VPDB) values show a scatter over the platform thickness and preserve randomly distributed values around 0‰. The scatter is probably due to selective re‐setting of δ¹⁸O near pore spaces and is mainly a sampling effect.
• The observation that ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (77 analyses) of limestone and dolomite are either slightly higher or lower than Middle Triassic seawater, but almost never “normal marine”, suggests that the platform carbonates of the Pale were deposited from seawater contaminated with artesian freshwater. The limestone corridors are probably caused by artesian springs of somewhat higher than ambient depositional temperature, with low Mg calcite and/or aragonite deposited in or near fracture zones. The volumetrically subordinate cycle‐cap dolomite is possibly a primary precipitate.

     

Origin of dolomite in the Middle Ordovician peritidal platform carbonates in the northern Ordos Basin,western China

The carbonates in the Middle Ordovician Ma_5~5submember of the Majiagou Formation in the northern Ordos Basin are partially to completely dolomitized.Two types of replacive dolomite are distinguished:(1) type 1dolomite,which is primarily characterized by microcrystalline(30 urn),euhedral to subhedral dolomite crystals,and is generally laminated and associated with gypsumbearing microcrystalline dolomite,and(2) type 2 dolomite,which is composed primarily of finely crystalline(30-100 urn),regular crystal plane,euhedral to subhedral dolomite.The type 2 dolomite crystals are truncated by stylolites,indicating that the type 2 dolomite most likely predated or developed simultaneously with the formation of the stylolites.Stratigraphic,petrographic,and geochemical data indicate that the type 1 dolomite formed from near-surface,low-temperature,and slightly evaporated seawater and that the dolomitizing fluids may have been driven by density differences and elevation-related hydraulic head.The absence of massive depositional evaporites in the dolomitized intervals indicates that dolomitization was driven by the reflux of slightly evaporated seawater.The δ~(18)O values(-7.5 to-6.1 ‰) of type1 dolomite are slightly lower than those of seawaterderived dolomite,suggesting that the dolomite may be related to the recrystallization of dolomite at higher temperatures during burial.The type 2 dolomite has lowerδ~(18)O values(-8.5 to-6.7 ‰) and Sr~(2+) concentration and slightly higher Na~+,Fe~(2+),and Mn~(2+) concentrations and~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr ratios(0.709188-0.709485) than type 1 dolomite,suggesting that the type 2 dolomite precipitated from modified seawater and dolomitic fluids in pore water and that it developed at slightly higher temperatures as a result of shallow burial.     

GEOCHEMISTRY, ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION AND ORIGIN OF THE BEDA DOLOMITES, BLOCK NC74F, SW SIRT BASIN, LIBYA

The Middle Palaeocene Beda Formation, penetrated by wells in block NC74F in the SW Sirt Basin, is dominated by lagoonal, intertidal, and supratidal rocks including evaporites originally deposited in a restricted shallow lagoon.
In the area studied, about 60% of the formation has been dolomitized. Dolomite occurs predominantly replacing precursor carbonate mudstones, although pore-filling cements line moulds and vugs. Replacive crystals are euhedral to subhedral, finely to very finely crystalline, and generally less than 0.03 mm in diameter. They are non-ferroan, and show a uniform dull-to-moderate orange luminescence. Crystals forming cements are coarser, up to 0.35 mm in diameter, and are characteristically baroque.
Geochemical data indicate that the Beda dolomites have high strontium, low iron, and low manganese contents. They are also depleted in ¹⁸O, with negative δ¹⁸O values averaging -3.63% (PDB). The ¹³C values show a more marine δ¹³C isotopic signature, with an average δ¹³C value of +3.33% (PDB).
The petrographic and geochemical characteristics of the Beda dolomites and their association with evaporites supports a model of early, near-surface, dolomitization resulting from hypersaline brine refluxion.     

鄂尔多斯盆地苏里格地区奥陶系马家沟组白云石化

苏里格地区马家沟组为一套碳酸盐岩为主,夹蒸发岩的地层,沉积于超盐度的局限陆表海环境。白云石分为以泥晶结构为主的,以细—中晶结构为主和充填于孔、缝中3类。白云石Na含量(0~2099)×10-6,Sr含量(0~70)×10-6,Mn含量(0~112)×10-6,Fe含量(39~86746)×10-6,以变化较大的Na含量、低的Sr和Mn含量、高的Fe含量为特征。白云石δ18O值在-16.00‰~-5.73‰之间,δ13C值在-11.46‰~1.90‰之间,说明碳酸盐岩经历了淋滤作用和埋藏作用。大多数孔、缝充填白云石较围岩组分有较低的δ18O和δ13C值,说明孔缝充填的白云石形成较晚。白云石以低的有序度,非理想配比的CaCO₃和MgCO₃含量为特征。白云石的87Sr/86Sr值为0.707977±0.000070至0.711791±0.000064,绝大部分高于全球中、上奥陶统分界线对应的87Sr/86Sr值。微生物白云石化是形成白云石的机理。      

CONSTRAINTS ON DIAGENESIS AND RESERVOIR QUALITY IN THE FRACTURED HASDRUBAL FIELD, OFFSHORE TUNISIA

The hydrocarbon reservoir of the Hasdrubal field (offshore Tunisia) lies within the Eocene El Garia Formation. This formation was deposited on a shallow north- to NE-facing ramp in the Early Eocene and is composed of a belt of nummulitic wackestones-grainstones. The nummulitic fades occupies a range of depositional environments from outer to mid ramp. In addition to Hasdrubal, several other producing oil- and gasfields have been discovered in the variably dolomitised El Garia Formation offshore Tunisia. Cores from three Hasdrubal wells were examined. Reservoir quality shows a limited relationship to primary depositional fabric and has been influenced significantly by compaction and later diagenesis. The highest permeabilities are typically developed within a dolomitised zone which occurs near the middle of the reservoir interval across the entire field, and which may follow a primary wackestone lithofabric (typically 20–30% bulk volume dolomite, with porosities of 15–22% and permeabilities of l-30mD). Fractures, particularly in zones surrounding faults, have resulted in enhanced permeabilities. Combined results of isotope (δ¹⁸ O -5.0 to -7.3%oPDB) and fluid inclusion (Th 80–90d̀C) analyses of dolomites from this dolomitised zone indicate that matrix dolomites are burial diagenesis cements. Dolomitisation of the reservoir was a “closed system ” event and was not the result of major fluid flow or mixing. Magnesium ions for dolomitisation were derived from the transformation of high-Mg to low-Mg calcite in nummulite tests within the reservoir fades. Our analyses indicate that calcite cements were precipitated at temperatures of up to almost 150d̀C in primary and secondary pores and in variably-sealed fractures Fracture lining and filling cements show a range of δ¹⁸ O values, which suggests that the fractures acted as fluid conduits over a range of temperatures during burial diagenesis Fracture densities measured in core increase rapidly close to seismically-resolvable faults in the reservoir facies Fracturing probably resulted in the leakage of hydrocarbons through the Compact Micrite Member seal which overlies the accumulation, as well as facilitating the ingress of hot fluids from stratigraphically deeper levels in the basin     

The effects of diagenesis on the petrophysical and geochemical attributes of the Asmari Formation,Marun oil field,southwest Iran

The distribution of good reservoir quality and its causes is the main challenges in carbonate reservoir characterization.This study investigates the effects of diagenetic processes on the reservoir quality of the carbonate successions of the Asmari Formation,in the Marun oil field,southwest Iran.The study applies an integrated approach including core petrography,petrophysical rock typing,stable carbon and oxygen isotopes as well as major and trace elements analyses.Petrographic studies and geochemical analyses express that the Asmari limestones have been affected mainly by compaction,dissolution,recrystallization,calcite and anhydrite cementation and dolomitization.Among those diagenetic overprints,dolomitization and dissolution played an important role to enhance the reservoir quality of the formation.Moreover,four types of dolomites were recognized and the rate of dolomitization increases toward the top of the Asmari carbonate successions.Possible models for dolomitization include mixing zone,brine reflux,seepage reflux and tidal pumping of seawater.Employing Flow Zone Index and Discrete Rock Type concepts led to classification of the Asmari reservoir into seven reservoir rock types.Integrating reservoir rock typing with petrographic studies and geochemical analyses also confirms that reservoir quality of the Asmari Fm.would have been mainly controlled by diagenetic processes.Moreover,stable isotopes,trace elements and facies analyses support the idea that carbonate intervals of the Asmari Formation were deposited in a warm,shallow-water environment under a saline condition.     

川东北元坝地区长兴组生物礁白云岩成因机理

上二叠统长兴组白云岩为川东北元坝气田生物礁气藏主要储层岩石类型。长兴组生物礁白云岩储层形成主要由白云石化作用和溶蚀作用影响控制。为了揭示生物礁白云岩成因机理,通过长兴组岩心观察、白云岩岩相学特征分析与地球化学特征分析多方法结合,对白云岩的不同白云石类型及特征进行了深入研究,明确了白云岩储层的白云石化作用类型和期次。长兴组生物礁白云岩储层白云石化类型可划分为4类,主要为同生期高盐度条件蒸发白云石化作用及回流渗透白云石化作用、浅埋藏白云石化作用、早成岩期热液白云石化作用,这3期白云化作用控制了元坝地区长兴组生物礁白云岩储层质量和分布。     

ORIGIN AND RESERVOIR ROCK CHARACTERISTICS OF DOLOSTONES IN THE EARLY TRIASSIC FEIXIANGUAN FORMATION, NE SICHUAN BASIN, CHINA: SIGNIFICANCE FOR FUTURE GAS EXPLORATION

Major discoveries of natural gas have recently been made in the oolitic dolostones of the Early Triassic Feixianguan Formation in NE Sichuan Province, Southern China. These dolostones were formed by three facies‐controlled dolomitization processes: (i) meteoric mixing zone dolomitization with dolomites having a relatively high degree of crystalline order (δ¹³C:?1.0 to 2.5%_PDB; δ¹⁸O:?6.5 to ?2.5%_PDB); (ii) seepage‐reflux dolomitization associated with evaporative brines; the corresponding dolomite crystals are relatively ordered and were formed in tidal flat environments and platform‐margin oolitic shoals adjacent to lagoons; (iii) burial dolomitization (shallow to moderate burial depths, ca. 1,000 to 4,000m), whereby seawater‐derived brines were present in the host rock and the resultant water/rock reactions played a major role in dolomitization. The three dolomitization processes were controlled by the arid climate prevailing during the Early Triassic, and also by fourth‐order relative sea‐level changes, especially with respect to the reflux dolomitization. Burial dolomitization, which is of second‐order of importance for porosity development, was strongly dependant on the presence of sufficient original porosity to facilitate water‐rock reactions within the carbonates. The best reservoir rocks formed as oolitic banks and bars in the vicinity of evaporative lagoonal‐tidal complexes which experienced optimal conditions for dolomitization. Dolostones with a dolomite content of 80% to 90% form good vuggy reservoir rocks at the present day, indicating that the intensity of dolomitization influences the quality of reservoir rocks. According to our results, future gas exploration in the Feixianguan Formation dolostone reservoirs should focus on locating oolitic banks associated with evaporative lagoon and tidal flat complexes and delineating the best structural/lithological traps.     

PETROPHYSICAL AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE APTIAN SHU'AIBA (LOWER QAMCHUQA) FORMATION RESERVOIR AT THE KHABBAZ OILFIELD,NORTHERN IRAQ

The Aptian Shu'aiba Formation is a shallow‐marine carbonate which occurs in the subsurface of central and southern Iraq and in other parts of the Arabian Plate including Oman, the UAE and Saudi Arabia. An equivalent unit is exposed at outcrop in northern Iraq where it is known as the lower part of the Qamchuqa Formation. For this study, core, cuttings and well log data from six wells in the Khabbaz oilfield (20 km SW of Kirkuk) were used to investigate the reservoir properties of the Shu'aiba Formation. The formation is 180–195 m thick at Khabbaz field and the reservoir section can be divided into three lithological units: an upper unit (A, 8–15 m thick) consisting of partly dolomitized marly limestones; a middle unit (B, 52–56 m thick) which is composed of vuggy dolomitic limestone and dolostone; and a lower unit (C, >110 m thick) which consists of shale‐rich and dolomitic limestones. Limestone microfacies include shelfal bioclastic wackestones, Orbitolina bioclastic packstones, Orbitolina grainstones, and pelagic bioclastic wackestones. Dolomite fabrics show little variation and are dominated by coarse crystalline planar‐e types. Most matrix porosity is associated with intercrystalline pores in medium‐crystalline (100–50 µm) planar‐e dolostone. Fracturing of variable intensity has resulted in a flow type which is dominated by fracture flow superimposed on matrix flow.     

DOLOMITIZATION OF THE EARLY EOCENE JIRANI DOLOMITE FORMATION, GABES-TRIPOLI BASIN, WESTERN OFFSHORE, LIBYA

Dolomitization in the early Eocene Jirani Formation in the Gabes‐Tripoli Basin (offshore western Libya) occurred in two stages. Stage I dolomites are composed of two types, one associated with anhydrite (Type I) the other anhydrite free (Type II,). The stratigraphic and sedimentological settings together with petrographic and geochemical criteria suggest that dolomitization was effected by refluxed evaporative seawater. Stable isotope and trace element analyses suggest dolomitization of both Types from a fluid of near‐surface seawater composition under oxidising conditions modified by evaporation. Non‐luminescence and lack ofzonation of all the dolomite indicate that the dolomitizing fluids maintained a relatively constant composition. The geologic setting during the early Eocene, interpreted as hypersaline lagoon, supports an evaporative reflux origin for the anhydritic dolomite Type I. Type II developed under less saline conditions in the transition zone between lagoon and open marine shelf. Stage II dolomitization is recorded by negative isotope values in both Types I and II indicating their dissolution and recrystallization (neomorphism) by dilute solutions. A period of exposure of the overlying Jdeir Formation following a relative sea‐level fall allowed ingress of meteoric waters into both the Jdeir and the underlying Jirani Formations. Flushing by meteoric waters also resulted in development of excellent secondaly porosity and caused major dissolution of anhydrite to form the anhydritic‐free dolomite facies typical of Type II. Following, and possibly during, both Stages I and II, low temperature dolomites (Type IIIa) precipitated in pore spaces from residual jluids at shallow burial depths, partially occluding porosity. In the late stage of basin evolution, medium clystalline, pore‐filling saddle dolomite precipitated, causing some filling of mouldic and vuggy porosity (Type IIIb). Very light oxygen isotopic signatures confirm that it developed from high temperature fluids during deep burial diagenesis. Calculation of temperatures and timings of the dolomitization and cement phases show that the main dolomitization phases and Type IIIa cements occurred in the early Eocene, and that the saddle dolomite precipitated in the Miocene; these results are consistent with age relationships established from stratigraphic, petrographic and geochemical signatures. The most common porosity includes intercrystal, vuggy and mouldic types. Porosity is both pre‐dolomitization and syn‐dolomitization in origin, but the latter is the most dominant. Hence, reservoir quality is largely controlled by fluid dynamics.     

四川盆地南江栖霞组白云岩岩石学、地球化学特征及成因

四川盆地南江桥亭剖面中二叠统栖霞组二段灰岩局部白云岩化,基质白云岩主要由非平直晶面他形晶白云石构成,孔洞缝中充填鞍形白云石和结晶方解石,溶解作用主要发生在白云石中。在岩石学研究基础上,综合运用碳氧同位素、元素、包裹体均一化温度、阴极发光测试手段,结合埋藏史、热史以及峨眉山玄武岩喷发非正常地热增温事件,研究了基质白云石和鞍形白云石的特征和成因。研究表明:基质白云石、鞍形白云石和结晶方解石的包裹体均一化温度分别为100~110,130~230,130~230℃;富含基质白云石、鞍形白云石和结晶方解石样品的δ18O_PDB值分别为-4.27‰~-6.28‰,-4.87‰~-5.80‰,-5.16‰~-6.50‰,δ13C_PDB值分别为3.97‰~5.22‰,4.88‰~5.35‰,2.73‰~4.29‰;与基质白云岩相比较,鞍形白云石和结晶方解石的δ18O值略负,并显示三者碳源为同时期海水。反演的基质白云岩形成流体的δ18O_SMOW值分布在3‰~6‰之间,鞍形白云石δ18O_SMOW主要分布在7‰~14‰之间,盐度均显著高于同期海水,因而两者都是在高温和高盐度的流体中形成的。三者都受到了峨眉山玄武岩喷发活动所引起的热事件影响,高温和高盐度克服了白云石沉淀的动力学屏障,形成交代灰岩的基质白云岩和孔洞缝中充填的鞍形白云石,流体的持续高温和Mg2+的消耗,导致了高温方解石的沉淀,显示热液对碳酸盐岩的改造作用。