耕作地表土块状况及其对近地表风场的影响

为深入理解非可蚀性土块吸收风能、降低侵蚀力的机制,利用野外风速资料,对半干旱区农田传统耕作模式下犁耕、耙耱及抹平等的地表土块大小、土壤表面粗糙度、近地表风速及空气动力学特征进行了研究。结果表明,犁耕后农田土块长、宽、高均在15 cm以上,盖度为27.67%,耙耱、抹平后土块大小和盖度显著降低,抹平地表土块盖度仅为2.13%;土块的破碎导致土壤表面粗糙度降低,近地表风速增大;与犁耕地表比较,耙耱后土壤表面粗糙度降低34%~64%,抹平后降低幅度甚至在90%以上;耙耱抹平后地表以上0.5 m高度内风速显著增大,空气动力学粗糙度由1.1 cm降低至0.05 cm,侵蚀力增强。因此认为,合理选择犁耕、耙耱和抹平的时间对农田风蚀防治有实际意义。     

戈壁、流沙地表风沙流特性研究

通过对戈壁、流沙地表风沙流特性的风洞模拟实验研究,风沙流中的风速廓线分布满足幂函数的形式,其幂指数在0.20左右。对于戈壁地表,在不同风速下,相同高度层含沙量具有很大的相关性,风沙活动层主要集中在距地表20cm范围内;由于沙粒与戈壁地表的砾石发生碰撞,风沙流不再服从对数关系递减,其极值出现的高度随风速的增加而上移,呈现"象鼻效应"。     

策勒不同下垫面风速廓线时空差异研究

通过对新疆策勒4个下垫面10m高风速廓线及粗糙度、摩阻风速等分析,探讨不同时空条件下植被和地形对风场的影响。结果表明:在中性层结下,从流沙前沿到半固定沙地、固定沙地扬沙天气风速廓线斜率依次降低,风速较大时基本符合对数关系,其拟合程度依次是半固定沙地﹥固定沙地﹥流沙地,绿洲内部2m以上高度的风速较大时与高度基本符合对数关系。春季沙尘暴期间风速较小时半固定沙地0-10m高及绿洲内部2m以上高度风速与高度变化接近对数关系,当夏季沙尘暴风速较大时,4个下垫面不同高度风速与高度之间都不呈现对数关系。随着地表植被覆盖度的增加,粗糙度和摩阻风速也迅速增加,绿洲内部夏季沙尘暴天气近地表粗糙度比春季地表粗糙度增加较为显著。     

砂粒胶结体盖度与床面风沙活动关系的风洞模拟

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地部分垄间地表发育了一种由众多砂粒胶结而成的大颗粒物质,称为砂粒胶结体(sand cemented bodies,缩写为SCD),其直径达到粗砂级、极粗砂级和砾石级.为研究其对地表风沙活动的影响,以野外采集SCD颗粒为实验材料,对不同SCD盖度下输沙通量垂直分布及输沙率变化进行了风洞实验.结果表明:风沙通量在SCD盖度沙床面表现为指数变化,主要集中在风沙活动底部.同时,随着SCD盖度的增加,总输沙量降低,部分沙量运移到较高层面,输沙率随SCD盖度变化可分成3个梯度区域,且曲线斜率反映不同风速等级下,SCD盖度对地表沙物质沉积过程的影响.当SCD盖度小于10％时,风沙活动强烈且风速在输沙过程中起主导作用.当SCD盖度在10％ ～ 40％时,随着SCD盖度增加输沙率降低,盖度对地表风沙活动的影响更为明显,特别是对近地表风沙活动的影响.当SCD盖度大于40％时,床面风沙活动趋于稳定,输沙率变化微弱,随SCD盖度变化输沙率保持不变,沙床面不易受侵蚀.因此,砂粒胶结体覆盖沙床面能够有效降低地表风蚀,且在一定盖度下还能捕获流沙颗粒.塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地丘间地天然发育的SCD对于地表风蚀过程具有重要的影响,可作为一种新型固沙材料进行开发.     

作物残茬覆盖对农田土壤风蚀的影响

为定量评价干旱半干旱地区农田土壤抗风蚀效果,采用移动式风洞及其配套测试系统对内蒙古武川县上秃亥乡农田地表进行了原位测试研究。结果表明,不同风速下土壤风蚀量随作物残茬盖度的增加呈指数规律减少;40%以上残茬盖度可明显提高土壤颗粒起动风速并减少风蚀量;当风速为14~18 m/s时,地表作物残茬盖度为60%~80%具有较好的抗风蚀效果。     

不同粒径沙粒胶结体覆盖对地表风蚀和输沙率抑制效应的风洞模拟

沙粒胶结体(sand cemented bodies,缩写为SCB)是由众多沙粒胶结而成的大颗粒物质,广泛分布于塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地部分垄间地表。通过风洞实验测定了不同风速下不同粒径沙粒胶结体覆盖对沙床面的土壤风蚀率和输沙率变化的影响。结果表明:风速和粒径是影响SCB覆盖沙床面风蚀率的主要因素。在一定的风力条件下,风蚀率随沙粒胶结体粒径的增加呈指数递减变化,在一定的胶结体覆盖度下,风蚀率随风速增加而增大,且粒径越大风蚀率随风速的增加而增大的趋势更为明显;风速不是影响地表输沙率的主要因素,胶结体粒径在一定程度上对输沙率的影响起主导作用。随着胶结体粒径的增加,沙粒在胶结体覆盖床面产生上升过程,且输沙率随粒径的增加而增大,胶结体覆盖对输沙率的抑制作用主要体现在胶结体覆盖的密度效应上,密度越小输沙率越高。即同一盖度下的胶结体颗粒物,大粒径的胶结体较小粒径胶结体沙床面分布密度、数量都相对较小。因此,大粒径胶结体地表输沙率相对较大。不同粒度范围的胶结体覆盖沙床面表现出不同的风蚀和输沙率抑制效应,依次为:2~3 mm3~5 mm5~7 mm7~10 mm10 mm。     

草原灌木带空气动力学粗糙度研究

为了定量研究灌木带修复退化草原的机理,采用集沙仪和风速廓线仪野外采集了不同高度灌木带及退化草原的风蚀物及风速廓线,利用最小二乘法对风速廓线数据进行计算得到了相应的空气动力学粗糙度。结果表明:灌木带对草地的防护机理在于提升了地表的空气动力学粗糙度,降低了近地表的风速,从而导致灌木带相对退化草原的抗风蚀能力增强,大量风蚀物集中在近地表30 cm范围内;距灌木带的距离越远,空气动力学粗糙度呈现下降趋势;同时对不同高度灌木带的研究发现,0.3 m、0.7 m和1.5 m高的灌木带分别在距背风面3 m、5 m和6 m处的空气动力学粗糙度与退化草原的值趋于一致,此距离为该灌木带的有效防风蚀范围,空气动力学粗糙度及有效防护范围均随灌木高度的增加而增大。     

小麦留茬对陕北农田风蚀影响的室内风洞模拟

作为风蚀区主要保护性耕作措施之一,秸秆留茬覆盖可以通过增加地表粗糙度(Z0)减少近地表风速和侵蚀动力,并缩短风蚀颗粒的搬运距离和搬运高度,从而减少地表风蚀量.本研究采用室内模拟风洞实验,测定并分析了陕北2种主要土壤类型(风沙土和黄绵土)在4个风速、3种小麦留茬高度和2种留茬行距处理下土壤风蚀强度和在0～60 cm风洞断...     

新疆策勒4个典型下垫面近地层风速脉动特征

以塔克拉玛干沙漠南缘策勒沙漠-绿洲过渡带为研究区,对流沙地、半固定沙地、固定沙地和绿洲内部4个下垫面平均风速、风速脉动和风向脉动特征进行分析,探讨风速、风向脉动差异原因。结果表明:1平均风速与阵风风速之间符合线性相关性,相关性随着距离地表高度的增大而增大,各高度平均风速与阵风风速都呈极显著正相关(P0.01);2从流沙前缘沿主风向至绿洲内部,随着植被盖度的增加,平均风速逐渐降低,且离地表越近降低的幅度越大;3随距离地表高度的增大,各测点风速脉动强度呈现先增大后减小的趋势,风速脉动相对值呈减小的趋势。从流沙地、半固定沙地、固定沙地到绿洲内部,风速脉动强度和风速脉动相对值总体上呈现增大的趋势,而在4个下垫面中,绿洲内部不同高度的风速脉动强度在夏季表现为最小,在冬季表现为最大;4风向脉动幅度以流沙地最小,半固定沙地、固定沙地次之,绿洲内部最大,即随植被覆盖度增加而增大。     

一次沙尘暴过程中的沙地面微气象要素及起沙参数分析

利用在巴丹吉林沙漠北缘拐子湖地区设立的风沙观测实验场获得的资料,分析了2010年4月7日在该地区所发生的沙尘暴过境前后气象要素的变化,计算了这次沙尘暴起沙过程中的一些参数,结果表明:在沙尘暴过境前贴地层风速风向经过了一个波动调整加速过程,在沙尘暴过境时空气处于暖干,沙地面处于高温低湿状态,同时气压和水汽压都会明显下降,所有这些都有利于地表起沙;贴地层风速最大的时段是地表起沙最为严重的时段,该地的100cm临界起沙风速大约为6.5m/s,平均粗糙度为0.0014m;地表摩阻速的平均值为0.29m/s,同200cm高度的风速呈线性相关,拟合方程为y=0.0417x+0.0175,相关系数R=0.9199。     

Effect of stones on the sand saltation threshold during natural sand and dust storms in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert,Mongolia

Non-erodible elements such as stones and vegetation are key to controlling wind erosion and dust emission in drylands. Stony deserts are widely distributed in the Gobi Desert, but the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission have not been well studied, except under artificial conditions. In this study, we evaluated the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission by measuring the sand saltation threshold in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, under natural surface conditions during sand and dust storms. We quantified the amount of stones by measuring the roughness density, and determined the threshold friction velocity for sand saltation by measuring wind speed and sand saltation count. Our results showed that the threshold friction velocity increased with the roughness density of stones. In the northern part of the study area, where neither a surface crust nor vegetation was observed, the roughness density of stones was 0.000 in a topographic depression (TD), 0.050 on a northern slope (N.SL), and 0.160 on the northern mountain (N.MT). The mean threshold friction velocity values were 0.23, 0.41, and 0.57 m/s at the TD, N.SL, and N.MT sites, respectively. In the southern part of the study area, the roughness density values of stones were 0.000 and 0.070-0.320 at the TD and southern slope sites, respectively, and the mean threshold friction velocities were 0.23 and 0.45-0.71 m/s, respectively. We further compared the observed threshold friction velocities with simulated threshold friction velocities using Raupach's theoretical roughness correction and the measured roughness density values, and found that Raupach's roughness correction worked very well in the simulation of threshold friction velocity in the stony desert. This means that the results of our stone measurement can be applied to a numerical dust model.     

Effects of gravel mulch on aeolian transport:a field wind tunnel simulation

The shape,size and coverage of gravels have significant impacts on aeolian sand transport.This study provided an understanding of aeolian transport over the gravel mulching surfaces at different wind velocities by means of a mobile wind tunnel simulation.The tested gravel coverage increased from 5% to 80%,with a progressive increment of 5%.The gravels used in the experiments have three sizes in diameter.Wind velocities were measured using 10 sand-proof pitot-static probes,and mean velocity fields were obtained and discussed.The results showed that mean velocity fields obtained over different gravel mulches were similar.The analysis of wind speed patterns revealed an inherent link between gravel mulches and mean airflow characteristics on the gravel surfaces.The optimal gravel coverage is considered to be the critical level above or below which aeolian transport characteristics differ strongly.According to the present study,the optimal gravel coverage was found to be around 30% or 40%.Threshold velocity linearly increased with gravel coverage.Sand transport rate first increased with height above the wind tunnel floor(Hf),reaching a peak at some midpoint,and then decreased.     

Wind tunnel experiments on dust emissions from different landform types

The measurement and assessment of dust emissions from different landforms are important to understand the atmospheric loading of PM10(particulate matter ≤10 μm aerodynamic diameter) and to assess natural sources of dust; however, the methodology and technique for determining the dust still present significant research challenges. In the past, specialized field observation and field wind tunnel studies have been used to understand the dust emission. A series of wind tunnel tests were carried out to identify natural sources of dust and measure the magnitudes of dust emissions from different landforms. The method used in this study allowed the measurement of the PM10 emission rate using a laboratory based environmental boundary layer wind tunnel. Results indicated that PM10 emissions demonstrated strong temporal variation and were primarily driven by aerodynamic entrainment. Sand dunes, playa, and alluvial fans had the largest dust emission rates(0.8–5.4 mg/(m~2·s)) while sandy gravel, Gobi desert and abandoned lands had the lowest emission rates(0.003–0.126 mg/(m~2·s)). Dust emissions were heavily dependent on the surface conditions, especially the availability of loose surface dust. High dust emissions were a result of the availability of dustparticle materials for entrainment while low dust emissions were a result of surface crusts and gravel cover. Soil surface property(surface crusts and gravel cover) plays an important role in controlling the availability of dust-sized particles for entrainment. The dust emission rate depended not only on the surface conditions but also on the friction velocity. The emission rate of PM10 varies as a power function of the friction velocity. Although dynamic abrasion processes have a strong influence on the amount of dust entrainment, aerodynamic entrainment may provide an important mechanism for dust emissions. Large volumes of dust entrained by aerodynamic entrainment cannot only occur at low shear velocity without saltation, but may dominate the entrainment process in many arid and semi-arid environments. So it may also be responsible for large magnitude dust storms. Playa and alluvial fan landforms, prior to developing a surface crust, may be the main sources of dust storms in Qinghai Province.     

Effect of flexible and rigid roughness elements on aeolian sand transport

In developing countermeasures to reduce the negative effects of strong dust events, the fundamental relationship between surface conditions and sand transport remains problematic. We conducted field observations and wind tunnel experiments to examine the effect on sand transport efficiency of actual frontal area when using flexible roughness elements (artificial grass) and rigid roughness elements (tufts of stiff wire). In the field observations, the sand trap ratio approached a limit as the frontal area of artificial grass, measured as the Actual Frontal Area Index (AFAI), approached 25%, equivalent to a vegetation cover of 20%. The wind tunnel experiments showed that the height of deposited sediment decreased downwind with both roughness elements, due to their reduction of both shear velocity and sand transport rates. The sediment flux decreased as the AFAI increased, and the rigid roughness element trapped more sand particles than the flexible one except at higher wind speeds and lower AFAI values. The sand trapping efficiency was greater for rigid roughness elements than for flexible ones, probably due to their high aerodynamic resistance, and thus wire tufts were more effective for trapping sand than artificial grass at higher AFAI values.     

Interactive effects of wind speed,vegetation coverage and soil moisture in controlling wind erosion in a temperate desert steppe,Inner Mongolia of China

The rapid desertification of grasslands in Inner Mongolia of China poses a significant ecological threaten to northern China. The combined effects of anthropogenic disturbances(e.g., overgrazing) and biophysical processes(e.g., soil erosion) have led to vegetation degradation and the consequent acceleration of regional desertification. Thus, mitigating the accelerated wind erosion, a cause and effect of grassland desertification, is critical for the sustainable management of grasslands. Here, a combination of mobile wind tunnel experiments and wind erosion model was used to explore the effects of different levels of vegetation coverage, soil moisture and wind speed on wind erosion at different positions of a slope inside an enclosed desert steppe in the Xilamuren grassland of Inner Mongolia. The results indicated a significant spatial difference in wind erosion intensities depending on the vegetation coverage, with a strong decreasing trend from the top to the base of the slope. Increasing vegetation coverage resulted in a rapid decrease in wind erosion as explained by a power function correlation. Vegetation coverage was found to be a dominant control on wind erosion by increasing the surface roughness and by lowering the threshold wind velocity for erosion. The critical vegetation coverage required for effectively controlling wind erosion was found to be higher than 60%. Further, the wind erosion rates were negatively correlated with surface soil moisture and the mass flux in aeolian sand transport increased with increasing wind speed. We developed a mathematical model of wind erosion based on the results of an orthogonal array design. The results from the model simulation indicated that the standardized regression coefficients of the main effects of the three factors(vegetation coverage, soil moisture and wind speed) on the mass flux in aeolian sand transport were in the following order: wind speedvegetation coveragesoil moisture. These three factors had different levels of interactive effects on the mass flux in aeolian sand transport. Our results will improve the understanding of the interactive effects of wind speed, vegetation coverage and soil moisture in controlling wind erosion in desert steppes, and will be helpful for the design of desertification control programs in future.     

Wind tunnel test on the effect of metal net fences on sand flux in a Gobi Desert,China

The Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway runs through an expansive windy area in a Gobi Desert, and sand-blocking fences were built to protect the railway from destruction by wind-blown sand. However, the shielding effect of the sand-blocking fence is below the expectation. In this study, effects of metal net fences with porosities of 0.5 and 0.7 were tested in a wind tunnel to determine the effectiveness of the employed two kinds of fences in reducing wind velocity and restraining wind-blown sand. Specifically, the horizontal wind velocities and sediment flux densities above the gravel surface were measured under different free-stream wind velocities for the following conditions: no fence at all, single fence with a porosity of 0.5, single fence with a porosity of 0.7, double fences with a porosity of 0.5, and double fences with a porosity of 0.7. Experimental results showed that the horizontal wind velocity was more significantly decreased by the fence with a porosity of 0.5, especially for the double fences. The horizontal wind velocity decreased approximately 65% at a distance of 3.25 m(i.e., 13 H, where H denotes the fence height) downwind the double fences, and no reverse flow or vortex was observed on the leeward side. The sediment flux density decreased exponentially with height above the gravel surface downwind in all tested fences. The reduction percentage of total sediment flux density was higher for the fence with a porosity of 0.5 than for the fence with a porosity of 0.7, especially for the double fences. Furthermore, the decreasing percentage of total sediment flux density decreased with increasing free-stream wind velocity. The results suggest that compared with metal net fence with a porosity of 0.7, the metal net fence with a porosity of 0.5 is more effective for controlling wind-blown sand in the expansive windy area where the Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway runs through.     

Computational fluid dynamics evaluation of the effect of different city designs on the wind environment of a downwind natural heritage site

Disturbance in wind regime and sand erosion deposition balance may lead to burial and eventual vanishing of a site.This study conducted 3D computational fluid dynamics(CFD)simulations to evaluate the effect of a proposed city design on the wind environment of the Crescent Spring,a downwind natural heritage site located in Dunhuang,Northwestern China.Satellite terrain data from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer(ASTER)Digital Elevation Model(DEM)were used to construct the solid surface model.Steady-state Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations(RANS)with shear stress transport(SST)k-ωturbulence model were then applied to solve the flow field problems.Land-use changes were modeled implicitly by dividing the underlying surface into different areas and by applying corresponding aerodynamic roughness lengths.Simulations were performed by using cases with different city areas and building heights.Results show that the selected model could capture the surface roughness changes and could adjust wind profile over a large area.Wind profiles varied over the greenfield to the north and over the Gobi land to the east of the spring.Therefore,different wind speed reduction effects were observed from various city construction scenarios.The current city design would lead to about 2 m/s of wind speed reduction at the downwind city edge and about 1 m/s of wind speed reduction at the north of the spring at 35-m height.Reducing the city height in the north greenfield area could efficiently eliminate the negative effects of wind spee.By contrast,restricting the city area worked better in the eastern Gobi area compared with other parts of the study area.Wind speed reduction in areas near the spring could be limited to 0.1 m/s by combining these two abatement strategies.The CFD method could be applied to simulate the wind environment affected by other land-use changes over a large terrain.     

Influence of salinity and moisture on the threshold shear velocity of saline sand in the Qarhan Desert,Qaidam Basin of China: A wind tunnel experiment

Determination of the threshold shear velocity is essential for predicting sand transport, dust release and desertification. In this study, a wind tunnel experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of salinity and moisture on the threshold shear velocity of saline sand. Saline sand samples (mean particle size of 164.50-186.08 μm and the total silt, clay and salt content of 0.80%-8.25%) were collected from three saline sand dunes (one barchan dune and two linear dunes) in the Qarhan Desert, Qaidam Basin of China. Original saline sand samples were placed in two experimental trays for wet and dry processing to simulate deliquescence and desiccation, respectively. Surface moisture content ranging from 0.30% to 1.90% was generated by the steam method so that the saline sand can absorb water in a saturated water vapor environment. The motion of sand particles was determined by the observers with a solid laser. The laser sheet (0.80 cm thick), which was emitted by the solid laser, horizontally covered the sand surface and was bound to the sand. Results show that the cohesion of saline sand results from a combination of salt and water. The threshold shear velocity increases exponentially with the increase in crust thickness for the linear sand dunes. There is a positive linear correlation between the original moisture content and relative threshold shear velocity. The threshold shear velocity of dewatered sand is greater than that of wet sand with the same original moisture content. Our results will provide valuable information about the sand transport of highly saline soil in the desert.