3D-CTA在颅内动脉瘤破裂开颅手术中的应用价值

目的探讨三维血管CT造影（3D-CTA）在颅内动脉瘤破裂开颅手术中的应用价值。方法经手术证实的颅内动脉瘤破裂导致蛛网膜下腔出血（SAH）或颅内血肿患者65例,术前均行3D-CTA检查并进行动脉瘤手术模拟,部分患者术前行DSA检查。将患者术前3D-CTA、术前DSA、术中所见进行比较,分析3D-CTA的临床应用价值。结果 65例患者共有动脉瘤68枚,3D-CTA发现65枚,诊断阳性率为95.59%,特异性为100%。3D-CTA可清晰显示动脉瘤位置、大小、形态、瘤顶指向、瘤颈宽窄、载瘤动脉、动脉瘤与周围血管及骨结构关系,且与术中所见基本一致。结论 3D-CTA是一种准确、快捷、微创的诊断颅内动脉瘤方法,能够提供足够信息指导动脉瘤的外科手术治疗。     

三维CT脑血管造影在脑动脉瘤诊断中注意点

目的探讨三维CT脑血管造影(3D-CTA)在诊断脑动脉瘤时的注意事项。方法回顾总结3D-CTA检查的106例蛛网膜下腔出血(SAH)病例,其中14例初次3D-CTA显示动脉瘤不清或发现颅内非动脉瘤样血管异常者,对其进行DSA脑血管造影检查。结果初次3D-CTA检查正确诊断脑动脉瘤92例,其中16例为多发脑动脉瘤,共检出115个。余14例因诊断不明确进而实施DSA脑血管造影检查,其中确诊动脉瘤合并烟雾病2例、严重脑血管痉挛致动脉瘤显示不清2例、脑动静脉畸形1例(此5例与3D-CTA所见一致);在3D-CTA扫查范围外发现脑动脉瘤2例。对上述阳性诊断的99例进行手术,并得到证实。另7例在3D-CTA和DSA检查未发现引起SAH的原因病灶,给予保守治疗。结论在脑动脉瘤诊断中,3D-CTA具有较好的精确性。在判断动脉瘤与颅骨位置关系、操作的便捷性和经济性等方面明显优于DSA。在应用3D-CTA对脑动脉瘤进行诊断时,有必要根据患者和设备的具体情况进行个性化设计,方能减少漏诊、误诊。     

三维CT血管造影术在颅内动脉瘤破裂早期诊治中的价值(附348例报告)

目的评价三维CT血管造影术（3D-CTA）在颅内动脉瘤破裂早期诊断和治疗中的临床应用价值。方法对419例自发性蛛网膜下腔出血病例全部行3D-CTA检查，其中阴性病例再行DSA检查，对确诊为颅内动脉瘤的病例行显微外科手术或介入治疗。结果345例经3D-CTA检查阳性中检出动脉瘤365个，75例阴性病例中DSA证实仅有3例漏诊。348例动脉瘤患者共检测出动脉瘤368个，术中见动脉瘤位置及瘤体、瘤颈和周围解剖结构的关系与术前3D-CTA显示一致。术后病人3D-CTA随访，与术前比较，动脉瘤均夹闭完全、确实。结论3D-CTA是一种方便、可靠、快捷的诊断方法，可以作为颅内动脉瘤破裂诊治的首选影像检查。并且在术中及术后复查随访研究方面也具有重要的临床应用价值。     

3D-CTA在破裂颅内动脉瘤诊断和手术中的应用

目的探讨三维CT血管造影(3D-CTA)对破裂颅内动脉瘤诊治的价值。方法 21例破裂颅内动脉瘤均行3D-CTA检查,8例同时行常规DSA检查,20例行显微手术动脉瘤夹闭。结果 21例共计发现25个动脉瘤,3D-CTA检查发现24个动脉瘤,在1例多发动脉瘤中3D-CTA遗漏1个大脑中动脉瘤,DSA能显示该动脉瘤,同时发现载瘤动脉存在脑血管痉挛。20例24个动脉瘤直接手术夹闭,术后存活14例(恢复良好12例,差2例),死亡6例,术中探查发现动脉瘤数目、位置、载瘤血管、瘤顶指向、瘤体及瘤顶大小与3D-CTA显示基本吻合,无假阳性。结论 3D-CTA诊断颅内动脉瘤具有微创、快捷、安全、可靠的优点,并可显示动脉瘤立体结构,可作为重症破裂动脉瘤及年老体弱患者的首选影像学诊断方法,术者可依据3D-CTA提供的信息指导手术。     

16层螺旋CT 3D-CTA在颅内动脉瘤中的诊断及临床应用价值

目的探讨三维CT血管造影（three dimensional computed tomographic angiography，3D-CTA）在颅内动脉瘤的临床应用及其价值。方法对自发性蛛网膜下腔出血及怀疑颅内动脉瘤的患者53例，使用SIEMENS SOMATOM Sensation 16层螺旋CT扫描仪行3D-CTA检查（时间在发病后4h～3d），并行数字减影血管造影（digital subtraction angiography，DSA）检查；3D-CTA图像与DSA图像由神经外科医师和放射科医师用双盲法共同进行分析。结果经3DICTA、DSA和手术共同证实发现44例共49个动脉瘤，动脉瘤大小为1．7～25mm，其中单发动脉瘤36例，多发5例（1例为3个动脉瘤，4例为2个动脉瘤）；在44例动脉瘤患者中3D-CTA发现42例47个动脉瘤；DSA发现43例48个动脉瘤；动脉瘤的瘤体最大径及瘤颈最大径3D-CTA测量值与DSA测量值比较无显著性差异（t=0．59和t=0．49，P均〉0．05）；53例病情轻重不一患者在行3D-CTA检查过程中病情无加重或无其他意外发生。结论3D-CTA对颅内动脉瘤具有快捷、经济、安全和微创等优点，并有通过一次注射对比剂扫描即可从任意角度观察所显示的颅内动脉瘤的细节及与骨性结构的关系等优点，但存在无法依时间顺序分别显示动脉、毛细血管和静脉，无法分清血流方向及显示一些重要的小血管和重要的穿通支如脉络膜前动脉、丘脑穿通动脉等，也无法在血管内操作等不足之处；在诊断和治疗颅内动脉瘤的应用中与DSA检查互补也可得到颅内动脉瘤更完整的信息。     

3D-CTA诊断和治疗颅内动脉瘤的可行性探讨

目的探讨三维CT血管成像(3D-CTA)取代DSA,作为颅内动脉瘤诊断和治疗依据的可能性。方法42例患者行3D-CTA与DSA检查,两者对照研究并以术中发现为准评估图像质量。结果本组动脉瘤35个,3D-CTA准确检出32个,DSA准确检出34个,两者检出率差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),但在小动脉瘤诊断上3D-CTA尚不及DSA;根据术中发现,3D-CTA在瘤壁钙化、载瘤动脉的显示、瘤周解剖标志等方面,明显优于DSA(P<0.05)。结论随着CT机及软件的更新,3D-CTA可能取代DSA成为颅内动脉瘤诊断和治疗的首选。     

三维CT血管造影在颅内动脉瘤诊断和治疗中的应用

目的评价三维CT血管造影（3D-CTA）在颅内动脉瘤破裂后蛛网膜下腔出血诊断中的价值及其对手术的指导意义。方法对136例蛛网膜下腔出血患者行螺旋CT检查，将数据输入工作站行图像三维重建。对其中95例行数字减影血管造影术（DSA）检查，41例直接手术证实。结果3D-CTA显示了瘤体的大小、方向，以及与载瘤动脉、邻近血管及骨质结构的相互关系；经手术、DSA证实本组3D-CTA对动脉瘤的诊断准确率为98．4％。假阳性率为1．6％，假阴性率为0。结论3D．CTA对颅内动脉瘤是一种无创、快速、高准确率的诊断技术；3D—CTA可显示各部位动脉瘤与载瘤动脉、邻近动脉分支及邻近颅骨的空间关系，对选择手术入路和手术方式有较大的帮助。     

DSA检查和介入治疗在蛛网膜下腔出血应用的临床体会

目的探讨DSA检查及介入治疗在蛛网膜下腔出血(subarachnoid hemorrhage,SAH)病人的病因诊断和治疗中的应用。方法回顾性分析我院45例常规行3D-DSA的SAH病例,其中31例同步行3D-CTA检查,28例接受颅内动脉瘤的介入治疗。比较DSA与CTA在上述患者中的颅内动脉瘤的检出情况,比较DSA与CTA对SAH病人病因诊断的优缺点;并探讨介入治疗在SAH合并颅内动脉瘤病例治疗中的优缺点。结果在动脉瘤检出率方面DSA与CTA比较,两者无统计学差异(P>0.05);在显示的动脉瘤大小,形状,动脉瘤瘤颈显示情况及其与载瘤动脉的关系方面,DSA检查患者在介入治疗过程证实明显优于CTA检查;28例行弹簧圈栓塞介入治疗的预后明显优于16例行内科保守治疗患者的预后(P<0.05)。结论在SAH的病因诊断中DSA优于CTA检查,但CTA不失为一种良好的动脉瘤筛选手段,DSA检查对要求进一步行病因治疗的患者是不可替代的;动脉瘤弹簧圈栓塞治疗SAH合并动脉瘤是安全有效的,可明显减少动脉瘤再破裂出血,改善预后。     

3D-CTA对出血性脑血管病的诊断价值评估

目的探讨3D-CTA检查对出血性脑血管病的诊断价值及安全性。方法对出血性脑血管病中DSA检查阳性的46例病人与之前所做的CTA结合三维重建结果进行对比分析,探讨3D-CTA对出血性脑血管病病因诊断的准确率。结果 所有患者均检查顺利,无1例出现异常情况。与DSA及介入栓塞、动脉瘤夹闭术中所见作比较,3D-CTA能够清晰显示38个动脉瘤病灶,可以观察到瘤体大小、瘤颈宽度及与载瘤动脉的关系,完全吻合率达到100%;5例DSA显示动静脉畸形,3D-CTA显示4例,检出率80.0%;2例在DSA检查中未发现,3D-CTA诊断为动脉瘤,检出率91.6%,其中小脑下前动脉1例,大脑前动脉A2段1例。结论 3D-CTA具有无创伤,检测迅速,定位准确,检查费用较低等优点,可作为脑血管疾病的诊断和介入治疗筛选的方法,尤其可作为脑动脉瘤和动静脉畸形所致蛛网膜下腔出血的首选检查方法。     

3D-CTA结合DSA在颅内动脉瘤诊断中的应用

目的比较三维螺旋CT血管造影(3D-CTA)和数字减影血管造影(DSA)在颅内动脉瘤诊断中的应用价值。方法对2007-09~2009-08入院的自发性蛛网膜下腔出血(SAH)患者69例,行3D-CTA、DSA检查,研究比较CTA、DSA影像特点。结果69例患者,阴性3例,余66例患者共检出72个动脉瘤。3D-CTA与DSA准确性比较,差异无统计学意义。结论在颅内动脉瘤影像学诊断上,3D-CTA和DSA各有优势。DSA与CTA两种检查方法互补可提高动脉瘤的检出率。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.