Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth

This study examined childhood gender atypicality, lifetime victimization based on sexual orientation, and current mental health, including trauma symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), among 528 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Nearly 80% reported verbal victimization, 11% physical, and 9% sexual, with males reporting significantly more victimization. Victimization began, on average, at age 13. Verbal attacks occurred as early as age 6, physical attacks at 8, and sexual attacks at 9. Youth who were considered gender atypical in childhood reported more victimization and more current mental health symptoms. PTSD was found in 9% of youth and was associated with past physical victimization.     

The social,relational and mental health characteristics of justice-involved men in the south-west England

The aim of this article is to describe the social, relational and mental health characteristics of a sample of offenders serving prison or community sentences in the south-west England. About 100 adult male offenders were screened for anxiety and depressive disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), drug and alcohol dependence, and likely personality disorder using validated instruments. Fifty-eight per cent of the sample reported at least one common mental health problem, of these only 26% reported receiving treatment. Participants exposed to traumatic events and/or participants with past mental health problems were more likely to score positive for current common mental health problems. Our study identified factors that may increase the risk of a first episode or recurrent anxiety and/or depression for offenders. Health and criminal justice services should create partnerships and develop interventions that address the risk factors which lead and/or contribute to offenders' mental health difficulties.     

Social Connection to Neighbors,Multiple Victimization,and Current Health Among Women Residing in High Crime Neighborhoods

This study assessed current health [physical health, bodily pain, global distress, posttraumatic stress-related disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and illicit substance use] among 160 minority women residing in high crime areas with varying numbers of different types of victimization histories and varying levels of social connections (SCs) to neighbors. Multivariate analyses of covariance indicated a main effect for number of different types of victimization and for SC to neighbors, after considering ethnicity, immigration, and marital status. Women with two or three+ different types of victimization reported higher global distress, PTSD symptoms, and illicit substance use than women with zero or one type of victimization. Likewise, women with low levels of SC to neighbors reported higher bodily pain than women with high levels of SCs to neighbors.     

Examining Predictors of Depression Among Older Incarcerated Women

For older women in prison, adjustments to prison life are often affected by a variety of mental and physical health symptoms. Many come to prison with specific histories of traumatic life experiences that place them at risk for high levels of depression. Using data gathered from 327 older women (mean age = 56.5), we examined the relationship between a variety of preprison conditions and prison deprivation factors as possible predictors of depression. Stepwise regression results indicated that depression was greater for those with prior abuse histories, functional health problems along with poorer perceptions of mental and physical health, safety and other prison environment concerns. Although race was not a significant predictor in the regression model, a t-test did find that whites were more depressed than African Americans in our sample. Other correlates of depression are also identified that lend insights into the high rates of depression found among elderly women in prison. With such high rates of psychiatric disorders among women offenders, more treatment interventions are needed to adequately serve this population.     

The mental health needs of incarcerated youth in British Columbia, Canada

The purpose of the study was to identify the current prevalence of mental disorders and mental health needs among incarcerated male and female youths in Canada, and to present these data in the context of rates found in other jurisdictions. One hundred forty male and 65 female incarcerated young offenders in British Columbia were screened with the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument Version 2 (MAYSI-2); provisional psychiatric diagnoses were assessed with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (DISC-IV); abuse history and aggressive symptoms of Conduct Disorder (CD) were coded from file information. Nearly all youths (91.9% of males and 100% of females) met the criteria for at least one mental disorder. Substance abuse and dependence disorders were highly prevalent (85.5% of males and 100% of females). Aggressive forms of CD were common (72.9% of males and 84.3% of females), as were exposure to physical abuse (60.8% of males and 54.3% of females) and sexual abuse (21.2% of males and 42.4% of females). Female youths had significantly higher odds of presenting with: (1) substance abuse/dependence disorders; (2) current suicide ideation; (3) sexual abuse; (4) PTSD; (5) symptoms of depression and anxiety; (6) Oppositional Defiant Disorder; and (7) multiple mental disorder diagnoses. Male youths had significantly higher odds of presenting with aggressive symptoms of CD. Overall, rates of mental disorder among this sample of serious and violent young offenders were higher than rates previously reported for incarcerated youths — both in Canada and in other jurisdictions.     

Does recent physical and sexual victimization affect further substance use for adult drug-involved offenders?

This study examined whether physical and sexual victimization experiences were related to further substance use for a sample of drug-involved adult offenders and whether this increase could be attributed to depression experienced after the victimization occurred. A total of 674 men and 284 women from the longitudinal Multisite Adult Drug Court Evaluation (MADCE) were included in analyses. The study included 23 drug court and 6 comparison sites. Study participants completed three interviews: at baseline enrollment and then at 6 and 18 months after baseline. Multilevel path modeling showed that physical and sexual victimization experiences during the year before the baseline interview were associated with further substance use at 18 months and that this relationship was mediated by depression. All relationships held for both men and women, and beyond the contribution of several control variables, including drug court program participation. Public health and criminal justice personnel working with substance-using offenders should screen individuals for victimization-related trauma and, if identified, provide assistance to evaluate and improve such individuals' mental health and, subsequently, decrease their likelihood of using substances.     

Victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology, and later nonsuicidal self-harm in a birth cohort

This longitudinal population-based study examined pathways to nonsuicidal self-harm (NSSH) in relation to childhood sexual abuse (CSA), assault victimization in early adulthood, posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology (PTSD), and other mental disorders. At age 21, 476 men and 455 women completed interviews on assault victimization, PTSD, and other mental disorders. At age 26, they completed independent interviews on self-harm and childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine predictors for NSSH at age 26. For men, anxiety and depressive disorders at age 21 were the only significant predictors of NSSH at age 26. For women, victimization, PTSD, and other anxiety disorders at age 21 all significantly predicted NSSH. CSA predicted later NSSH only indirectly, by increasing the risk of anxiety disorders among men and of assault victimization among women. In conclusion, pathways to nonsuicidal self-harm differed by sex. For women there were direct links with assault victimization and PTSD in early adulthood, whereas for men only internalizing disorders predicted future NSSH.     

Mental health correlates of the victim-perpetrator relationship among interpersonally victimized adolescents

This research examines mental health correlates of different victim-perpetrator relationships among adolescent victims of interpersonal violence. A large and nationally representative sample of adolescents (N = 4,023) responded to structured telephone interviews concerning mental health functioning (posttraumatic stress disorder-PTSD, major depressive disorder, substance abuse/dependence, and delinquency). Those reporting histories of sexual (n = 321) and/or physical (n = 688) assault were queried about specific aspects of their assaults, including their relationship with the perpetrator. After controlling for demographic and assault-related risk factors, the victim-perpetrator relationship remained a significant risk factor for mental health problems. Adolescents sexually assaulted by nonstrangers were at increased risk for PTSD; those sexually assaulted by acquaintances or people they did not know well were at increased risk for delinquency. Adolescents who were physically assaulted by a family member were at increased risk for PTSD. Explanations for the findings and the need for consistent assessment methods across related studies are discussed.     

Exploring the Relationship Between Childhood Sexual Abuse and Adult Sexual Perpetration

Empirical findings indicate that many adult sexual offenders experienced sexual abuse during childhood. It has been suggested that characteristics of offenders' sexual perpetrating behaviors may resemble their own victimization experiences, although there has been minimal empirical investigation in this area. The purpose of the present study was to provide preliminary data on the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and characteristics of sexual offending behavior. A sample of adult male sexual offenders with histories of sexual abuse completed the Sexual Victimization Survey as well as a measure on their sexual offenses. Such characteristics as the nature of sexual activities, duration and frequency of experiences, and age and relationship of participants were examined. Results showed trends in the hypothesized direction and revealed a variety of similarities between childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual perpetration. Findings of this exploratory study suggest the importance of addressing the nature of victimization in the treatment of sexually abused boys and offenders with histories of sexual abuse.     

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Criminal Extremity: New Evidence for Sexual Homicide

Adverse childhood experiences are associated with a wide range of behavioral, health, and psychiatric deficits and have recently been used to study the development of serious offending careers. Unfortunately, this research paradigm has largely ignored forensic populations. This study utilized the adverse childhood experiences framework to examine the associations between exposure to violence, victimization, and total adverse childhood experiences on sexual homicide using a sample of 616 incarcerated adult male sexual offenders from Canada 85 of whom committed sexual homicide. Epidemiological tables of odds revealed that a gradient of adverse childhood experiences was associated with sexual homicide, but that the most significant risks were for offenders who had the most extensive abuse histories. In adjusted models, exposure to violence, victimization, and total adverse childhood experiences increased the odds of sexual homicide by 334%, 249%, and 546%, respectively. These effects intensified in models adjusted for childhood enuresis, cruelty to animals, parental abandonment, deviant sexual behaviors, poor self‐image, and sexual problems to 559%, 326%, and 849%, respectively. The adverse childhood experiences framework is a systematic way to organize the criminogenic developmental sequela in sexual homicide.     

The effect of acculturation and immigration on the victimization and psychological distress link in a national sample of Latino women

Distinct bodies of research have examined the link between victimization and psychological distress and cultural variables and psychological health, but little is known about how cultural variables affect psychological distress among Latino victims. Substantial research has concluded that Latino women are more likely than non-Latino women to experience trauma-related symptoms following victimization. In addition, examination of different types of cultural adaptation has found results supporting the idea that maintaining ties with one's culture of origin may be protective against negative mental health outcomes. The present study evaluates the effect of victimization, immigrant status, and both Anglo and Latino orientation on psychological distress in a national sample of Latino women. Results indicate that along with the total count of victimization experiences, Anglo and/or Latino orientation were strong predictors of all forms of psychological distress. Anglo orientation also functioned as a moderator between victimization and psychological distress measures for anger, dissociation, and anxiety. The results suggest a more nuanced and complex interaction between cultural factors, victimization, and psychological distress.     

Current psychopathology in previously assaulted older adults

Older adult women age 55+ years (N = 549) were interviewed as part of a population-based epidemiological research study of lifetime experiences with physical and sexual assault and current mental health problems. Although overall rates of psychopathology were low, producing very small cells for comparison, women who reported experiencing physical assault an average of 28 years previously were more likely to present with past year substance abuse, depression, and avoidance and reexperiencing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than those with no previous physical or sexual assault. Women who reported experiencing sexual assault an average of 50 years previously were more likely to present with autonomic arousal and avoidance symptoms of PTSD than those with no prior sexual assault. The aforementioned findings should be considered with caution, however, as sample cell sizes were minimal for all but the PTSD symptom subtypes. Mental health service implications for older adults are discussed.     

Bidirectional partner violence among homeless young adults: risk factors and outcomes

One of the most prevalent forms of violence in contemporary society is the victimization of intimate partners. Although it has been established that homeless young people experience high levels of victimization on the street, little is known about partner violence (PV) experiences among this group, especially bidirectional violence. As such, the purpose of this study is to examine the prevalence of PV and bidirectional violence and to investigate risk factors and outcomes of this form of violence using a sample of homeless young adults. Overall, 59% of the sample experienced bidirectional violence. Multivariate results reveal that sexual abuse and neglect are significant correlates of PV. In addition, being either a victim or perpetrator of PV is associated with more severe substance use and higher levels of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Finally, there is support for bidirectional violence among homeless young adults even after controlling for early histories of maltreatment.     

Sex-symmetric effects of coercive behaviors on mental health? Not exactly

The present study tested a section of the model of coercion in intimate partner violence (IPV) by investigating the relationships among coercion, IPV and mental health symptoms. The study's sample consisted of 573 culturally diverse university students (age M = 21.4) who completed a survey that measured past IPV victimization, coercive behaviors, and mental health symptoms. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that coercion was a stronger predictor of adverse mental health symptoms than was IPV victimization. In addition, the study found that the adverse effect of coercive behaviors on mental health symptoms was stronger among female victims of IPV than among male IPV victims. The results have implications for theory building, future research, and mental health professionals who work with female and male victims of IPV.     

Physical victimization in prison: the role of mental illness

This study compares prison physical victimization rates (inmate-on-inmate and staff-on-inmate) for people with mental disorder to those without mental disorder in a state prison system. Inmate subjects were drawn from 14 adult prisons operated by a single mid-Atlantic State. A sample of 7,528 subjects aged 18 or older (7,221 men and 564 women) completed an audio-computer administered survey instrument. Mental disorder was based on self-reported mental health treatment ever for particular mental disorders. Approximately one-quarter of the sample reported some prior treatment for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, PTSD, or anxiety disorder. Rates of physical victimization for males with any mental disorder were 1.6 times (inmate-on-inmate) and 1.2 times (staff-on-inmate) higher than that of males with no mental disorder. Female inmates with mental disorder were 1.7 times more likely to report being physically victimized by another inmate than did their counterparts with no mental disorder. Overall, both males and females with mental disorder are disproportionately represented among victims of physical violence inside prison.     

Psychopathology in women arrested for domestic violence

This study examined the prevalence of psychopathology among women arrested for violence and whether the experience of intimate partner violence (IPV) was associated with Axis I psychopathology. Women who were arrested for domestic violence perpetration and court referred to violence intervention programs (N= 103) completed measures of IPV victimization, perpetration, and psychopathology. Results revealed high rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, substance use disorders, borderline personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. Violence victimization was significantly associated with symptoms of psychopathology. Logistic regression analyses showed that sexual and psychological abuse by partners were associated with the presence of PTSD, depression, and GAD diagnoses. Results highlight the potential importance of the role of violence victimization in psychopathology. Results suggest that Axis I and Axis II psychopathology should routinely be assessed as part of violence intervention programs for women and that intervention programs could be improved by offering adjunct or integrated mental health treatment.     

Bruised Inside Out: The Adverse and Abusive Life Histories of Incarcerated Women as Pathways to PTSD and Illicit Drug Use

The majority of incarcerated women who suffer from diverse traumatic life histories including abusive home lives and intimate partner violence (IPV), develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and struggle with heavy illicit drug use. While many have offered examinations of these relationships, the current study is among the first to utilize an integrated feminist pathways and general strain theory (GST) approach to explain them. Using data from a stratified random sample of all incarcerated women in Oklahoma (N = 334), we explore the links between, adverse childhood experiences, including physical, sexual, emotional, and childhood neglect, IPV, PTSD, and heavy illicit drug use. Our findings indicate that the effects of IPV on heavy illicit drug use are mediated by PTSD symptoms suggesting that PTSD plays a significant role in the pathway to illicit drug use among Oklahoma women prisoners. Implications for the importance of utilizing an integrated feminist pathways and GST approach in future research are offered.     

Understanding the Potential Long-term Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Early Experiences of Victimization

Victimization in the USA is a substantial concern, despite a trend of decreasing crime rates. Victims of crime face a number of short-term consequences such as physical injury, fear and anxiety, and/or loss of property. Long-term consequences of victimization, however, may often be overlooked. Using the first six waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth, the current study examines the relationship between early experiences of victimization and long-term physical and mental health outcomes, including general health, access to and use of health care, and health risk behaviors. Results find that individuals who are victimized before the age of 12, especially those who experienced repeated bullying, are more susceptible to a number of physical and mental health issues such as negative perceptions of physical and mental health, smoking, subsequent victimization experiences, and homelessness. Public health concerns and policy implications of these findings are also discussed.     

Community violence victimization and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder: the moderating effects of coping and social support

This study tested the relationship of community violence (CV) victimization to severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and the roles of coping style and perceived social support in moderating that relationship. Three-hundred seventy-two men and women (age 18 to 22 years) self-reported on CV exposure, traumatic experiences, PTSD symptoms, perceived support from family and friends, and coping strategies. Results indicated that high CV victimization, high disengagement coping (i.e., avoidant styles), and low perceived social support from family and friends significantly predicted increased PTSD scores. Significant moderating effects indicated that the relationship between victimization and heightened PTSD severity was stronger at high levels of perceived friend support and disengagement. Thus, the protective function of friend support seemed to break down at increasing levels of victimization, whereas, as expected, avoidant styles of coping increased the risk for negative outcome. Findings are discussed in terms of event controllability, negative social reactions, and coping resources.     

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms,Relationship Adjustment,and Relationship Aggression in a Sample of Female Flood Victims

This study tested a model examining the interrelationships among posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, intimate relationship adjustment, and intimate relationship aggression in a sample of 205 adult female flood victims. At the bivariate level, higher PTSD symptoms were associated with higher physical and psychological aggression victimization, poorer relationship adjustment, and higher physical and psychological aggression perpetration. Results from structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses indicated that relationship aggression victimization influenced aggression perpetration directly, and in the case of physical aggression, indirectly through its relationship with PTSD symptoms and relationship adjustment. The influence of PTSD symptoms on physical aggression perpetration was fully explained by poorer relationship adjustment. These findings extend prior work from other traumatized populations documenting associations between variables reflecting PTSD symptomatology and indices of relationship functioning, and indicate a need for further investigation in this area of inquiry. This research was supported in part by a grant to Patricia A. Resick from the National Institute of Mental Health (1-R01-MH55542).