Thermal aspect of the diurnal variation of tropical convective and stratiform rainfall

The diurnal variation of radiation plays a key role in determining the diurnal variations of tropical oceanic convective and stratiform rainfall, and the examination of such a relationship requires a direct link between the radiation term in a heat budget and the surface rain rate in a cloud budget. Thus, the thermally related surface rainfall budgets derived from the combination of cloud and heat budgets are analysed with two-dimensional equilibrium cloud-resolving model simulation data to study the effects of sea surface temperature (SST) and cloud radiative, and microphysical processes on the diurnal variations of convective and stratiform rainfall. The results show that the increase in SST, the inclusion of diurnal variation of SST and the exclusion of cloud radiative processes increase negative diurnal anomalies of heat divergence over rainfall-free regions during the nighttime through changing the vertical structures of diurnal anomaly of radiation in the troposphere. The strengthened negative diurnal anomalies of heat divergence over rainfall-free regions enhance positive diurnal anomalies of heat divergence over convective regions, which intensifies the positive diurnal anomaly of convective rainfall. The exclusion of microphysical effects of ice clouds increases the negative diurnal anomaly of heat divergence over rainfall-free regions during the nighttime through reducing latent heat; this appears to enhance the positive diurnal anomaly of heat divergence over raining stratiform regions, and thus stratiform rainfall.     

Effects of water and ice clouds on cloud microphysical budget:An equilibrium modeling study

The effects of water and ice clouds on the cloud microphysical budget associated with rainfall are investigated through the analysis of grid-scale data from a series of two-dimensional cloud-resolving model equilibrium sensitivity simulations. The model is imposed without large-scale vertical velocity. In the control experiment, the contribution from rainfall （cM） associated with net evaporation and hydrometeor loss/convergence is about 29% of that from the rainfall （Cm） associated with net condensation and hydrometeor gain/divergence and about 39% of that from the rainfall （CM） associated with net condensation and hydrometeor loss/convergence. The exclusion of ice clouds enhances rainfall contribution of CM, whereas it reduces rainfall contributions of Cm and cM. The removal of radiative effects of water clouds increases rainfall contribution of CM, barely changes rainfall contribution of Cm and reduces the rainfall contribution of cM in the presence of the radiative effects of ice clouds. Elimination of the radiative effects of water clouds reduces the rainfall contributions of CM and Cm, whereas it increases the rainfall contribution of cM in the absence of the radiative effects of ice clouds.     

太赫兹波被动遥感卷云微物理参数的敏感性试验分析

太赫兹波长和典型卷云的冰晶粒子尺度处于同一量级,其在遥感卷云微物理参数(粒子尺度和冰水路径)方面具有广阔的应用前景.为了评估卷云微物理参数对太赫兹波传输特性的影响及其在太赫兹波段的敏感性,基于大气辐射传输模式分别模拟计算了晴空和有云条件下大气层顶的太赫兹辐射光谱特征,分析了这两种条件下辐射亮温差值的特点,研究了卷云冰晶粒子形状、粒子尺度及冰水路径对太赫兹辐射传输特性的影响,并定量计算了相关敏感系数.结果表明:卷云冰晶粒子形状、粒子尺度、冰水路径等对太赫兹波传输特性均有不同程度的影响,卷云效应也因通道频率而异,太赫兹波对卷云的粒子尺度和冰水路径有较高的敏感性,是理论上被动遥感卷云微物理特性的最佳波段.研究结果对于进一步发展太赫兹波被动遥感卷云技术、提高卷云参数的反演精度具有重要意义.     

热带对流活动日变化的模拟研究

利用一个云分辨与海洋的耦合模式,模拟研究了热带对流活动的日变化.通过对模拟结果的分析,揭示了热带地区不同海温日变化条件下,对流活动的云物理特征.利用热带海洋与全球大气响应观测实验（TOGA COARE）的观测资料作为模式的初始与边界场,来驱动耦合模式.对热带海表温度按照其日变化幅度的大小进行了分类,分为强、弱海表温度日变化两种类型,并在此基础上进行了合成分析.结果表明：1）在弱的海表温度日变化下,云中的云冰含量大于云水含量,说明云中以层状云为主;而在强的海温日变化下,云中的云水含量大于云冰含量,说明云中以 关键词： 热带对流日变化 地面降水率 云冰含量 云水含量     

相态对冰水混合云微观特性反演的影响研究

当云层的温度在－40℃~0℃之间时, 云层中会存在冰和水两种相态的云滴, 其散射特性与纯水云以及纯冰云特性有较大差异, 因此遥感反演混合相云层的微观和宏观物理特性具有重要的意义。本文采用冰水双层球模型模拟了冰水混合云中的云滴, 利用Mie理论计算了纯水、纯冰和冰水颗粒的单次散射特性, 分析了单次散射相函数, 不对称因子, 单次散射反照率等随着有效半径、相态、内外半径比等的变化特性。利用离散纵标法(DISORT)计算了水云和冰云对0.75 μm、2.16 μm和3.3 μm的双向反射函数, 讨论了利用纯水滴和纯冰滴反演冰水混合云滴的误差。分析结果表明, 利用0.75 μm和2.16 μm的太阳光反演冰水混合云的光学厚度和有效半径时, 光学厚度误差较大, 有效半径误差较小; 结合0.75 μm和3.3 μm的太阳光反演冰水混合云的光学厚度和有效半径时, 光学厚度误差较小, 有效半径误差较大, 其会高估其有效半径; 另外结合0.75 μm和3.3 μm这两个波长的反射函数反演冰水云的冰水混合比更为有效。     

基于多角度偏振特性的云相态识别及验证

云相态识别是云参数研究的重要组成部分,为了有效识别水云和冰云,根据水云和冰云微物理性质的差别,研究了水云和冰云的单次散射特性,采用基丁倍加累加法的,人量辐射传输方程模拟了水云和冰云的多角度偏振特件.模拟结果表明,光谱的多角度偏振特件能够体现山水云粒子和冰云粒子微物理性质的差异,云在特定方向反射的偏振辐射强度对云相态非常敏感,可以用米进行云相念的识别,在模拟的基础上进行了云相态识别算法的研究,并利用多角度偏振卫星数据--POLDER 0.865μm通道数据进行了实例分析.识别结果与MODIS云相态产品及其1.38μm卷云榆测结果进行了比较.分析结果表明,基于多角度偏振特性云相态识别算法可以有效地进行云相态识别.     

利用地基红外高光谱发射率数据进行云参数反演(2): 云滴有效半径和云水路径反演

云滴有效半径和云水路径等微物理参数是了解云的形成过程、辐射效应以及云、气溶胶和降水相互作用等问题的重要数据。利用地基红外高光谱辐射数据开展了云微物理参数反演方法研究。针对光谱数据的特点,进行了基于云层发射率光谱和辐射光谱的敏感性分析,在此基础上建立了云微物理参数与云发射率光谱差值和斜率等特征参数有关的查找表关系。具体特征参数包括：热红外波段862.1和934.9 cm-1的云层发射率之差、中红外波段1 900.1和2 170.1 cm-1的云层发射率之差、热红外波段900～1 000 cm-1区间的发射率光谱斜率和辐射值光谱斜率、1 100～1 200 cm-1区间的发射率光谱斜率和辐射值光谱斜率等。研究了臭氧波段云层透过率的计算方法及对查找关系的约束性,选择了1 050～1 060 cm-1区间的云层透过率平均值作为约束特征参数。实现了基于逐步搜索法的多重查找反演云滴有效半径和光学厚度,并可通过经验关系计算云水路径。研究表明,该算法得到的水云的云滴有效半径与ARM计划中的MICROBASE产品基本相当,冰云的云滴有效半径相对偏小,两者的云水路径反演结果差异较大。该反演算法较适合于光学厚度小于6的薄云。     

A strong ice cloud event as seen by a microwave satellite sensor: Simulations and observations

In this article, brightness temperatures observed by channels of the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-B (AMSU-B) instrument are compared to those simulated by a radiative transfer model, which can take into account the multiple scattering due to ice particles by using a discrete ordinate iterative solution method. The input fields, namely, the pressure, temperature, humidity, and cloud water content are taken from the short range forecast from the Met Office mesoscale model (UKMES). The comparison was made for a case study on the 25 January 2002 when a frontal system associated with significant cloud was present over the UK. It is demonstrated that liquid clouds have maximum impact on channel 16 of AMSU whereas ice clouds have maximum impact on channel 20. The main uncertainty for simulating microwave radiances is the assumptions about microphysical properties, such as size distribution, shape and orientation of the cloud particles, which are not known in the mesoscale model. The article examines the impact of these parameters on the cloud signal. The polarisation signal due to oriented ice particles at these frequencies is also discussed.     

Optical properties of mixed phase boundary layer clouds observed from a tethered balloon platform in the Arctic

A tethered balloon system was used to collect data on radiometric and cloud microphysical properties for mixed phase boundary layer clouds, consisting of ice crystals and liquid water droplets during a May–June 2008 experimental campaign in Ny-Ålesund, Norway, located high in the Arctic at 78.9°N, 11.9°E. The balloon instrumentation was controlled and powered from the ground making it possible to fly for long durations and to profile clouds vertically in a systematic manner. We use a radiative transfer model to analyze the radiometric measurements and estimate the optical properties of mixed-phase clouds. The results demonstrate the ability of instruments deployed on a tethered balloon to provide information about optical properties of mixed-phase clouds in the Arctic. Our radiative transfer simulations show that cloud layering has little impact on the total downward irradiance measured at the ground as long as the total optical depth remains unchanged. In contrast, the mean intensity measured by an instrument deployed on a balloon depends on the vertical cloud structure and is thus sensitive to the altitude of the balloon. We use the total downward irradiance measured by a ground-based radiometer to estimate the total optical depth and the mean intensity measured at the balloon to estimate the vertical structure of the cloud optical depth.     

冰水混合云对可见光的吸收和散射特性

根据Mie理论，分别计算了由纯水、纯冰和冰-水同心球形粒子构成的云层在可见光波段的单次散射特性. 根据辐射传输理论，利用叠加法数值计算了这三种不同构成的云层的反射函数，以及它们的平面反照率、透过率和吸收率. 结果表明，冰云和冰_水云的反射函数和平面反照率在大部分散射角下要略小于水云，而透过率却比水云的大. 通过具体的数值计算结果和理论分析，研究了水云的异常吸收现象. 关键词： 冰_水粒子 Mie理论 叠加法 光散射     

Sound, infrasound, and sonic boom absorption by atmospheric clouds

This study quantifies the influence of atmospheric clouds on propagation of sound and infrasound, based on an existing model [Gubaidulin and Nigmatulin, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 26, 207-228 (2000)]. Clouds are considered as a dilute and polydisperse suspension of liquid water droplets within a mixture of dry air and water vapor, both considered as perfect gases. The model is limited to low and medium altitude clouds, with a small ice content. Four physical mechanisms are taken into account: viscoinertial effects, heat transfer, water phase changes (evaporation and condensation), and vapor diffusion. Physical properties of atmospheric clouds (altitude, thickness, water content and droplet size distribution) are collected, along with values of the thermodynamical coefficients. Different types of clouds have been selected. Quantitative evaluation shows that, for low audible and infrasound frequencies, absorption within clouds is several orders of magnitude larger than classical absorption. The importance of phase changes and vapor diffusion is outlined. Finally, numerical simulations for nonlinear propagation of sonic booms indicate that, for thick clouds, attenuation can lead to a very large decay of the boom at the ground level.     

Radiative effect differences between multi-layered and single-layer clouds derived from CERES, CALIPSO, and CloudSat data

Clouds alter general circulation through modification of the radiative heating profile within the atmosphere. Their effects are complex and depend on height, vertical structure, and phase. The instantaneous cloud radiative effect (CRE) induced by multi-layered (ML) and single-layer (SL) clouds is estimated by analyzing data collected by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO), CloudSat, and Clouds and Earth’s Radiation Energy Budget System (CERES) missions from March 2007 through February 2008. The CRE differences between ML and SL clouds at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) and at the surface were also examined. The zonal mean shortwave (SW) CRE differences between the ML and SL clouds at the TOA and surface were positive at most latitudes, peaking at 120 W m⁻² in the tropics and dropping to −30 W m⁻² at higher latitudes. This indicated that the ML clouds usually reflected less sunlight at the TOA and transmitted more to the surface than the SL clouds, due to their higher cloud top heights. The zonal mean longwave (LW) CRE differences between ML and SL clouds at the TOA and surface were relatively small, ranging from −30 to 30 W m⁻². This showed that the ML clouds only increased the amount of thermal radiation at the TOA relative to the SL clouds in the tropics, decreasing it elsewhere. In other words, ML clouds tended to cool the atmosphere in the tropics and warm it elsewhere when compared to SL clouds. The zonal mean net CRE differences were positive at most latitudes and dominated by the SW CRE differences.     

湿斜压热动力耦合强迫激发辐合增长和暴雨维持的一种机制

打破将散度演化分析局限于水平动力学框架内的传统认识思维,针对大气的斜压性与层结特征将对大气运动散度场演化产生显著影响的事实,从湿斜压原始方程出发,将大气的斜压热力作用通过热力学方程引入散度方程,在替换平衡近似（alternative balance）下,导出了显式包含湿非地转Q矢量与垂直风切变耦合强迫作用的新型散度方程.阐明了潮湿大气中非地转斜压强迫激发散度场演化的物理机制,为利用常规观测资料诊断散度场演化提供了一种有效的数学工具.通过对流层中低层气柱内总体辐合增长影响因子的分 关键词： 暴雨天气 散度演变 正压非平衡强迫 湿斜压热动力耦合强迫     

Estimates of radiation over clouds and dust aerosols: Optimized number of terms in phase function expansion

The bulk-scattering properties of dust aerosols and clouds are computed for the community radiative transfer model (CRTM) that is a flagship effort of the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA). The delta-fit method is employed to truncate the forward peaks of the scattering phase functions and to compute the Legendre expansion coefficients for re-constructing the truncated phase function. Use of more terms in the expansion gives more accurate re-construction of the phase function, but the issue remains as to how many terms are necessary for different applications. To explore this issue further, the bidirectional reflectances associated with dust aerosols, water clouds, and ice clouds are simulated with various numbers of Legendre expansion terms. To have relative numerical errors smaller than 5%, the present analyses indicate that, in the visible spectrum, 16 Legendre polynomials should be used for dust aerosols, while 32 Legendre expansion terms should be used for both water and ice clouds. In the infrared spectrum, the brightness temperatures at the top of the atmosphere are computed by using the scattering properties of dust aerosols, water clouds and ice clouds. Although small differences of brightness temperatures compared with the counterparts computed with 4, 8, 128 expansion terms are observed at large viewing angles for each layer, it is shown that 4 terms of Legendre polynomials are sufficient in the radiative transfer computation at infrared wavelengths for practical applications.     

Radiative transfer due to atmospheric water vapor: Global considerations of the earth's energy balance

A simple analytical formulation is presented for describing radiative transfer due to atmospheric water vapor. The radiative model is then applied to a global energy balance for earth, and the net infrared flux to space is expressed in terms of the mean surface temperature and atmospheric lapse rate. Water vapor and clouds are assumed to be the only sources of infrared opacity. When compared with empirical information, and for a global mean surface temperature of 288 K, the radiative model indicates a cloud top altitude for a single effective cloud of 6·8 km. Alternatively, when applied to a more realistic three-cloud formulation, the model predicts a comparable value of 6·5 km for an average cloud top altitude.With respect to changes in mean surface temperature, again comparing with empirical results, a discussion relating to the model suggests that the cloud top altitude decreases with decreasing surface temperature, which results in the surface temperature being roughly twice as sensitive to changes in factors such as planetary albedo than for the conventional assumption of a fixed cloud top altitude. Implications of this are discussed with respect to possible albedo changes due to atmospheric particulate matter as well as cloudiness as a climate feedback mechanism.     

A fast infrared radiative transfer model for overlapping clouds

A fast infrared radiative transfer model (FIRTM2) appropriate for application to both single-layered and overlapping cloud situations is developed for simulating the outgoing infrared spectral radiance at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). In FIRTM2 a pre-computed library of cloud reflectance and transmittance values is employed to account for one or two cloud layers, whereas the background atmospheric optical thickness due to gaseous absorption can be computed from a clear-sky radiative transfer model. FIRTM2 is applicable to three atmospheric conditions: (1) clear-sky, (2) single-layered ice or water cloud, and (3) two simultaneous cloud layers in a column (e.g., ice cloud overlying water cloud). Moreover, FIRTM2 outputs the derivatives (i.e., Jacobians) of the TOA brightness temperature with respect to cloud optical thickness and effective particle size. Sensitivity analyses have been carried out to assess the performance of FIRTM2 for two spectral regions, namely the longwave (LW) band (587.3-1179.5 cm⁻¹) and the short-to-medium wave (SMW) band (1180.1-2228.9 cm⁻¹). The assessment is carried out in terms of brightness temperature differences (BTD) between FIRTM2 and the well-known discrete ordinates radiative transfer model (DISORT), henceforth referred to as BTD (F−D). The BTD (F−D) values for single-layered clouds are generally less than 0.8 K. For the case of two cloud layers (specifically ice cloud over water cloud), the BTD (F−D) values are also generally less than 0.8 K except for the SMW band for the case of a very high altitude (>15 km) cloud comprised of small ice particles. Note that for clear-sky atmospheres, FIRTM2 reduces to the clear-sky radiative transfer model that is incorporated into FIRTM2, and the errors in this case are essentially those of the clear-sky radiative transfer model.     

降雨对C波段散射计测风的影响及其校正

传统观点认为C波段散射计工作波长大于雨滴直径,受降雨散射衰减的影响很小, 因此往往忽略降雨对C波段散射计测风的影响.本文基于降雨引起C波段散射计信号的衰减、 后向体散射及雨滴落入海面后的扰动作用,推导了降雨条件下的雷达方程, 构建了2010年全年的ASCAT散射计、降雨雷达和欧洲中期天气预报中心数值预报的匹配数据集, 定量分析了降雨对C波段散射计测风的影响,发现其信号衰减随降雨强度和入射角的增大而增强; 后向体散射和雨表面扰动作用随降雨强度的增大而增强、随入射角的增大而减小, 其中雨表面扰动作用对散射计测风的影响大于后向体散射.另外, 利用降雨条件下的雷达方程和匹配数据集,本文建立了降雨条件下的C波段主动微波辐射传输模型, 实验表明,该模型能够改善降雨条件下C波段散射计测风的精度.     

Testing an ensemble model of cirrus ice crystals using midlatitude in situ estimates of ice water content,volume extinction coefficient and the total solar optical depth

In this paper an ensemble model of cirrus ice crystals is tested against midlatitude in situ estimates of ice water content, volume extinction coefficient and the total solar optical depth. During the Winter of 2005 and Spring 2006 the FAAM (Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements) BAE-146 G-LUXE aircraft flew three flights as part of the CAESAR (Cirrus and Anvils: European Satellite and Airborne Radiation measurements project) campaign of flying in cirrus around the UK. The suite of microphysical instrumentation onboard the aircraft included the PMS 2D-C probe and the Stratton Park Engineering Company (SPEC) cloud particle imager (CPI). The campaign characterized cirrus properties such as ice water content, volume extinction coefficient, ice crystal geometric shape and ice crystal effective dimension. Cirrus cloud temperatures ranged approximately between 215 and 240 K. From the CPI instrument 60–80% of the ice crystal habits were estimated to be either indeterminate or ‘irregular’ (though such irregular crystals could be composed of pristine components) of some form with hexagonal columns and hexagonal plates accounting for generally much less than 3% of the ice crystal population. The CPI estimated integrated ice water content ranged between 5±2 and 45±22 gm^?2, whilst the CPI estimate of the total solar optical depth was found to lie between 0.2±0.1 and 1.0±0.5. The CPI estimate of the mean ice crystal effective dimension was found to range between about 59±9 and 90±75 μm.The particle size distribution (PSD) function was estimated using a PSD scheme that requires as input the in situ estimated IWC and measured in-cloud temperature. The CPI estimates of the bulk and microphysical properties of the midlatitude cirrus are used to test whether an ensemble model of cirrus ice crystals together with a PSD scheme can predict CPI in situ estimates to within the experimental uncertainty. This paper demonstrates that the ensemble model coupled with a PSD scheme can predict the ice water content and the integrated ice water content to generally well within the experimental uncertainty if a varying density with respect to size is assumed. The ensemble model together with a PSD scheme is also shown to predict the CPI estimated volume extinction coefficient and the derived total solar optical depth to generally well within the experimental uncertainty. The paper demonstrates that an ensemble model of cirrus combined with a PSD scheme can predict the radiative properties of cirrus without the need to invoke the concept of an ice crystal effective dimension.     

MPM—An atmospheric millimeter-wave propagation model

A broadband model for complex refractivity is presented to predict propagation effects of loss and delay for the neutral atmosphere at frequencies up to 1000 GHz. Contributions from dry air, water vapor, suspended water droplets (haze, fog, cloud), and rain are addressed. For clear air, the local line base (44 O₂ plus 30 H₂O lines) is complemented by an empirical water-vapor continuum. Input variables are barometric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, suspended water droplet concentration, and rainfall rate.     

Sub-millimetre wave radiometry for cloud and rain characterization: From simulation to Earth observation mission concept

Different studies and instrument/mission proposals have demonstrated the potential of the passive sub-millimetre–millimetre wave (SMMW) radiometry to provide remote measurements for the characterization of clouds and rain. At these wavelengths radiation received by a satellite over ice clouds is dominantly scattered by the ice particles. Vertically integrated ice and water contents, hydrometeor properties and profiles can then be retrieved from the radiometric observations with the use of multi-frequency retrieval schemes based on inversion databases simulating realistic brightness temperatures from in situ or modeled cloud microphysics profiles. Current technological SMMW developments offer new observational perspectives for the characterization of the atmosphere.