The Conceptual Space of Good and Poor Hypnotic Subjects: A Preliminary Exploration

A form of the Semantic Differential, containing eight concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 12 deeply hypnotizable and 14 nonsusceptible Ss. The good hypnotic Ss evaluated all the concepts more favorably than did the poor hypnotic Ss, with the greatest differential between the two groups occurring on the concept hypnosis. Moreover, the susceptible Ss perceived hypnosis as closer in connotative meaning to such concepts as experiment and professor, then did the nonsusceptible Ss. All differences between the two groups of Ss were of small absolute magnitude, however. Therefore, while the results suggest a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and attitude toward hypnosis, they appear to preclude the use of the Semantic Differential as a practical predictor of hypnotic susceptibility.     

A single-treatment method to stop smoking using ancillary self-hypnosis: Final remarics in response to the discussants

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence on suggested amnesia of 2 variables: hypnotic susceptibility and active versus passive learning. 36 chronic schizophrenic patients, 18 low in hypnotic susceptibility and 18 medium or high in hypnotic susceptibility, were randomly assigned to active or passive learning conditions. These Ss were first tested in a hypnosis condition (Day 1) and were retested in a nonhypnosis condition (Day 2) with the presence of waking suggestion. The results for the hypnosis condition indicated that (a) there were no differences between low susceptible and medium-high susceptible Ss on recall amnesia and reversibility (reversible amnesia); (b) recall amnesia and reversibility were significantly higher (p <.01) in passive than active learning conditions; and (c) in all conditions recall was consistently ordered. The results for the nonhypnosis condition were similar, except that reversibility was not significantly higher in passive than active learning conditions. A secondary analysis which partitioned high susceptible (scoring 8-12) from medium susceptible (scoring 5-7) Ss revealed that reversibility was significantly higher in the high susceptible Ss than in the low susceptible Ss; medium susceptible Ss did not differ from either high or low susceptible Ss. The data suggest that the chronic schizophrenics' failure to recall hypnotic events may involve different mechanisms from those which account for posthypnotic amnesia in normal Ss.     

Cognitive Strategies in Hypnosis: Toward Resolving the Hypnotic Conflict

2 experiments were carried out to assess the relative contributions of dissociation and absorption as cognitive strategies employed by high and low hypnotizable Ss in responding successfully to hypnotic suggestions. Of special interest was the manner in which Ss deal with conflicting information typically inherent in hypnotic suggestions. In the first experiment, Ss rated their attentional focus and the involuntariness of their experience after responding to a number of hypnotic suggestions administered in the usual manner. In the second experiment, the level of conflict was varied by instructing some Ss to imagine a circumstance that was congruent and other Ss to imagine a circumstance that was incongruent with the suggested behavioral response. The results of the 2 experiments were consistent in suggesting that, depending upon the nature of the hypnotic suggestion, high hypnotizable Ss are able to employ dissociation or absorption in order to respond successfully. Low hypnotizable Ss, on the other hand, seem to be relatively ineffective dissociators. When the structure of the hypnotic suggestion precludes the use of absorption, the performance of low hypnotizables deteriorates.     

A note on the failure to find personality differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers for hypnotic research

Personality measures were administered to 136 students in an introductory psychology class at Brigham Young University. 30 Ss sudsequently volunteered to have their hypnotic susceptibility assessed. There were no significant differences found between the means of the resulting 23 variables for the 30 volunteers and 106 nonvolunteers. Two variables (age and ego strength) showed significantly different variances for the two groups, but these may be attributed to chance because of the number of significance tests made.     

Hypnotic age regression and the Ponzo and Poggendorff illusions

Parrish, Lundy, and Leibowitz (1968, 1969) reported that the magnitudes of the Ponzo and Poggendorff illusions obtained from 10 hypnotically age-regressed Ss were consonant with illusion data obtained from young children. The present study sought to replicate this finding using additional controls. Insusceptible Ss simulating hypnosis were used to equate “demand characteristics” in the experimental and control groups. A group of medium susceptible Ss was included as a further means of assessing differences between high and low susceptible Ss, should these occur. Post-experimental inquiry procedures were used to evaluate the extent to which the results were affected by Ss' perceptions of the experimental procedure and by their preconceptions of how children should respond to illusions. 18 university students (6 high, 6 middle, 6 low), whose hypnotic rating had been ascertained using SHSS:C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962) and the Diagnostic Rating Procedure of Orne and O'Connell (1967) underwent the procedures used by Parrish, Lundy, and Leibowitz. The present study was unable to replicate the original findings in any of the comparison groups. It was not possible to account for the failure to replicate, though differences between the 2 studies in selection of hypnotic Ss and in the use of simulating controls were pointed to as potential factors.     

Task structure as a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis

The hypothesis tested was that lack of task structure facilitates the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis. Following appropriate instruction 10 susceptible and 10 insusceptible Ss were tested in 2 sessions by an E who wm blind to the hypnotic susceptibility of Ss. In Session I, Ss were tested on an unstructured (Rorschach) and a structured (Unusual Uses Test) task. In Session II, Ss were administered the same tests again but after hypnosis had been induced and terminated. It was predicted that after receiving instructions to simulate, insusceptible Ss, initially constricted in their response, would change their behavior in Session II in the direction of increased productivity of response, while hypnotic Ss would not, and that the change would be most apparent on the unstructured task. Data supported the hypothesis. In Session II, simulating Ss, but not hypnotic Ss, significantly increased responses on the Rorschach and not on the Uses test. Results suggested that task definition is a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of faking instruction.     

Subject posture and hypnotic susceptibility: A comparison of standing,sitting, and lyingdown subjects

Because of the prominence of relaxation instructions and suggestions of sleep within common hypnotic induction procedures, it seemed a reasonable conjecture that, in comparison to the customary sitting posture, a lying-down posture would facilitate hypnosis and a standing posture inhibit it. A preliminary experiment, using a slightly modified, tape-recorded Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C, failed to support either hypothesis. A subsequent experiment under improved conditions with 20 Ss in each group (standing, sitting, and lying down) also showed no significant difference of mean hypnotic susceptibility scores between any 2 of the conditions.

Although Ss expressed dislike for the standing posture, the only objective disadvantage seemed to be some dizziness or nausea generated for some Ss (5 out of 39 tested in the standing condition). No clear evidence exists that this effect is to be attributed to hypnosis rather than to standing with eyes closed for an appreciable time.

The results show that hypnotic behavior may be little affected by the concomitant requirements of maintaining a standing or sitting posture, even with the use of an induction which emphasizes relaxation.     

The fantasy of hypnotic time obliteration with related literary allusions

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the effectiveness of a new training procedure on the modification of hypnotic susceptibility. 10 Ss were scored on their objective and subjective performances on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Forms A and C, both before and after training. Training consisted primarily of (1) providing the circumstances necessary for a clear conception of the appropriate sensory experiences, (2) allowing S to proceed by self-paced successive approximations, (3) structuring the procedure in order to place S in a double-bind situation, and (4) providing verbal reinforcement and opportunities for S's self-reinforcement. The results indicate that both the objective and subjective post-training changes in hypnotic susceptibility are statistically significant. Ss maintained a significant increase when tested by a new hypnotist, although the scores were slightly but significantly reduced. The increased performance on items not included in the training sessions revealed significant generalization. This investigation provides evidence that hypnotic susceptibility can be modified.     

Reactivation of memory by hypnosis and suggestion

The effects of hypnotic susceptibility (high vs. low), hypnotic condition (hypnotized vs. waking), and the order of testing (hypnosis first vs. waking first) on S's ability to recall meaningful material (specific facts about a rare chemical) 2 weeks after it was originally learned were studied using a 3-way, repeated-measures, factorial design. 52 college students (both male and female) acted as Ss for the study. No significant main effects were found, and the only significant interaction effect indicated that the memory was enhanced when tested the second time, regardless of whether it was in the waking or the hypnotized condition. The results were compared with the findings of other studies in this area using a less complex design.     

Hypnosis,attribution, and demand characteristics

2 strategies of hypnosis research are examined and criticized. It is first argued that Barber's (1969) positivistic use of the experimental method is methodologically blind to cognitions or cognitive states of awareness. Consequently, repeated demonstrations of input-output effects are not the same as evidence that a hypnotic state is scientifically vacuous. Orne's (1959, 1969) simulator methodology is then discussed as an attempt to refer outcome effects to state instead of to situational variables. The simulator paradigm is conceptualized in terms of attribution theory, which suggests that a S's awareness of situational influences on his behavior is a matter of central importance. Hence, whether or not a S is aware of the demand characteristics of the situation becomes a critical, but heretofore unexamined issue. The distinction between recognized and unrecognized demand characteristics is extended to postdict findings in which hypnotic Ss seem less sensitive than simulator Ss to the demand characteristics of the situation.     

Effects of hypnotic induction,motivational suggestions,and level of suggestibility on cognitive performance

The effects on cognitive performance of duration of the hypnotic induction procedure (none, minimal, or extended), presence or absence of motivational suggestions, and Ss' high or low level of suggestibility were assessed in a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial experiment with 120 Ss. Pre- and post-treatment measures were obtained on alternate forms of 4 cognitive tasks measuring visual-motor coordination, number facility, abstract reasoning, and associative memory. The experimental treatments generally failed to exert significant main or interactive effects on the 4 tasks. The discussion specifies 5 possible reasons why cognitive performance was not clearly affected by such experimental treatments as hypnotic induction, motivational suggestions, or a combination of hypnotic induction and motivational suggestions.     

Amnesia and Hypnosis

The present study explored the relative effects of 2 factors (3 levels of measured hypnotic susceptibility and 3 kinds of motivation procedures) on short-term memory for a paired associate learning task. 36 Ss were stratified, according to their HGSHS:A scores (Shor & E. Ome, 1962), into 3 groups (low, medium, and high susceptibility) of 12 Ss each. The Ss within each of the 3 groups were then evenly but randomly assigned to 3 treatment conditions, which differed in terms of the kind of motivational procedure (hypnotic, waking, or waking non motivational) in which suggestions of amnesia for a recently learned paired associate task were given. Generally, results did not directly support or were sometimes contrary to predictions derived from popular hypnosis theories, which assert that posthypnotic amnesia is a reliable behavioral criterion for the “hypnotic state”.     

An experimental study of the nature of hypnotic deafness: Effects of delayed speech feed-back

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the ability of hypnotic Ss to voluntarily resist a neutral suggestion when a monetary reward is offered for resistance. 19 of 40 Ss (47.5%) successfully resisted after money was offered by the “resistance instructor.” The correlation between resistance/compliance and hypnotizability was – .44 (high hypnotizables were more likely to comply). Ss' impressions of the hypnotist tended to be positive; impressions of the resistance instructor tended to be neutral. There was a tendency for nonresistors to have a more positive view of the hypnotist but it is not as marked as was found in an earlier study (Levitt &; Baker, 1983).     

Ratings of “trust” and hypnotic susceptibilty

The relationship of trust to hypnotic susceptibility has been only peripherally explored. This study tests the hypothesis that hypnotic susceptibility in females is related to traits associated with trust. A 38-adjective Trust Rating Scale for females was constructed and the relationship between ratings on this scale and a modified version of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962) was examined. 4 subgroups of Ss, with a total N of 102, were used. No relationship was found between group ratings of trust and hypnotic susceptibility, but self-ratings of trust correlated .40 with hypnotic susceptibility. Relationships among variables for all subgroups were generally consistent. The split-half reliability of .79 and alpha coefficient of .82 for the Trust Rating Scale indicate an encouraging degree of internal consistency for the trait being measured.     

A comparison of hypnotic and waking recall

This paper presents data from a programmatic series of studies that varied the range of conditions affecting potential increase of recall, memory distortions, and distortions of confidence during and following hypnosis. All the studies used a paradigm that exposed Ss to misleading information some time before memory was tested and applied procedures in the hypnotic setting to analyze memory performance in both recognition and free recall. Results from the program failed to demonstrate any increment in accurate memory due to hypnosis, and the accuracy of memory reports in hypnosis was at times significantly reduced. Further, hypnotic recall was distinctively distorted when false information was introduced after, rather than before hypnosis. Results were discussed in relation to the role hypnotic as opposed to contextual variables may play in explaining Ss' memory test performances, and some legal implications are drawn from the data.     

A further attempt to modify hypnotic susceptibility through repeated individualized experience

The study seeks to determine whether hypnotic susceptibility as measured on objective scales can be changed with practice and training. 3 low-, 2 medium-, and 1 high-scoring Ss were seen in individualized training sessions. Combining these Ss with the results of an earlier study (total N = 16) a comparison of gains among high and low Ss showed the higher Ss gaining significantly more (p < .05).     

Hypnotic Depth and Basal Skin Resistance

This study investigated the relationship between a self-report scale for measuring the depth of the hypnotic state and basal skin resistance (BSR). 10 Ss participated in 2 training and 2 experimental sessions each, and BSR was recorded during the latter two sessions. The self-report depth scale accurately predicted the occurrence of hypnotic dreaming and amnesia, traditional criteria for medium and deep hypnotic states. BSR showed a high, positive correlation with the self-report depth scale. Although the study was exploratory in nature, the data suggest that both the self-report depth scale and BSR may be useful measures for detecting changes in the depth of the hypnotic state, and encourage further research.     

Bales interaction analysis of hypnosis

Sound films of 2 hypnotists, 4 Ss, and 2 simulators of hypnosis were scored by a modification of Bales' interaction process analysis. Comparisons are presented between the interaction profiles of hypnotists and Ss Both of the hypnotists' transformed interaction percentages fell above the Ss' 95% confidence intervals for agreeing, asking questions, and giving suggestions, and below the Ss' confidence intervals for appearing submissive, giving opinions, showing tension, and giving information. No consistent differences were found between hypnotists and Ss for seeming positive, negative, or dominant, for disagreeing, or for releasing tension. The 2 simulators did not show consistent interaction differences from the real Ss.

Both advantages and limitations in applying Bales' method to hypnosis are discussed. It is concluded that interaction process analysis provides a measure of the overt role-differentiation between S and hypnotist, but does not directly reflect some of the unique features of the hypnotic situation.     

Pseudo-orientation in time as an hypnotherapeutic procedure

This investigation was carried out to obtain comparable figures on the prevalence of spontaneous and suggested posthypnotic amnesia. 91 introductory psychology students were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups, and were required to serve as Ss for two consecutive days. The standard induction of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form A was used on the first day, and that of Form B on the second. Suggestibility items were then presented and served to appraise susceptibility and to test for amnesia. For 1 group, spontaneous amnesia was tested on the first day, and suggested amnesia on the second day. This order was reversed for the second group. Using as evidence of amnesia that 4 or fewer of the 10 possible items were recalled, 6 (7%) showed spontaneous amnesia on one of the two days, while a significantly larger number, 32 (35%), showed suggested amnesia. When the groups were subdivided on the basis of susceptibility scores, it was found that there is a marked advantage for suggested amnesia over spontaneous amnesia for highly susceptible hypnotic Ss, while this difference essentially disappears for low Ss. It was further found that (a) suggested amnesia is significantly greater than spontaneous amnesia whether or not one follows the other, (b) there is a small effect of the suggested posthypnotic amnesia for all levels of susceptibility, but this becomes pronounced with susceptibility scores of 6 and above, (c) the highly susceptible hypnotic Ss show no more spontaneous posthypnotic amnesia than do other Ss. While there may be a small amount of spontaneous amnesia, this amount, if any, is small compared with suggested amnesia. It may be that those Es who find a large amount of spontaneous amnesia are giving unintentional suggestions that it is to be found.