我国低碳城市建设水平及潜能比较

面对国际发展低碳经济大趋势和世界各国低碳发展指标的强力约束,研究探讨了低碳城市建设的概念和关联性因素,包括：经济增长、产业结构、能源结构、能源效率、交通体系、消费方式、碳汇发展和制度创新等。尝试构建了低碳城市建设水平测度指标体系并比较分析了我国一些主要城市低碳发展水平和潜能,以期加快我国低碳城市建设,促使我国从传统经济发展方式向低碳经济发展方式转型。     

“污水-微藻-能源”串联技术新进展

水资源危机和能源危机给人类社会的可持续发展带来前所未有的挑战。微藻具有特殊的生理生态功能和突出的优点,是开展污水净化和生物质能源生产的不二选择。文章在简介微藻清除水体氮磷的特点、作用机理及其影响因素、微藻生产生物质能源的优势、油脂积累机制及其影响因素的基础上,提出一种基于微藻为中介以实现污水氮磷去除与生物质能源开发的串联技术体系。该＂污水-微藻-能源＂串联技术体系从微藻自身的生理生态特色出发,将其在污水净化与生物质能源生产上的优势有机结合起来,实现从污水中索要营养物质供微藻生长需要,以低成本、高效开发利用微藻生物质能源,为共同协调解决水资源危机和能源危机提供了新的思路与途径。通过探讨＂污水-微藻-能源＂串联技术体系的核心理念与开发基础,指出串联技术体系必须重视优质微藻品种的选育、光合生物反应器优化、耦合系统的完善以及高附加值胞内物质后续开发等几个关键技术环节。文章最后展望其发展趋势与应用前景。＂污水-微藻-能源＂串联技术体系的开发应用,有望缓解当前社会面临的水环境污染和能源紧缺双层压力,实现社会、经济、资源与环境的可持续发展,具有极其广阔的应用前景。     

环境税的双赢效应

环境税是近几年来社会关注的焦点问题,在阐述环境税双赢效应产生的基础上,论证了环境税实施为有关国家带来的环境和非环境效益,并针对我国现行税制结构和污染收费情况,分析了我国出现双赢效应的局限与可能,进而给出创造中国式环境税双赢效应的建议。     

基于城市流和引力模型的我国西部地区能源输送格局研究

西部地区是我国矿产资源分布的主要集聚区,定量测度我国西部地区的能源外向服务功能并分析能源城市与我国主要消费城市的引力格局可以综合探究促进西部地区协调、可持续发展的能源输送格局。通过构建城市流模型和引力模型分别对陕西、甘肃、四川、云南、贵州、新疆和内蒙古7个西部省区采矿业外向功能量、城市流强度和能源城市对消费城市的能源输送引力大小进行测度。结果表明:(1)陕西城市流强度和外向服务功能量最高,能源综合竞争力居于第2位,是西部各省区的核心区域;(2)内蒙古和新疆为西部各省区能源综合竞争力较强地区;(3)榆林、鄂尔多斯和咸阳能源供给潜力较高,可作为我国主要的能源供给城市;(4)能源需求较大的重工业城市应当成为能源城市优先供给区域,其次是直辖市地区和我国城市群中心城市;(5)东北三省、广州、海口等距离中心能源区较远的地区与能源城市之间的引力弱,应注重新能源的开发和利用以满足自身发展需要。     

半城市化区域能源-经济-环境关系分析

高效、经济、洁净的能源保障是半城市化地区向城市化推进的重要物质基础,能源、经济、环境三者的协调作用与健康有序发展是保障半城市化区域可持续发展的重要条件.基于厦门市集美区半城市化的特点,分析了该区域能源-经济-环境(3E)之间的关系,揭示3E关系瓶颈产生的原因,旨在为构建半城市化区域可持续发展的3E系统提供帮助.分析结果表明,粗放型的能源利用方式、产业结构调整过程中忽视能源的集约利用以及环保意识薄弱是制约集美区3E系统协调发展的重要因素,因此合理利用能源,提高能源利用效率、优化能源和经济结构体系以及加强环境保护意识都将是构建集美区和谐3E系统的有效途径.     

基于低碳经济的能源资源协调发展的研究

能源是经济发展的命脉。经济和能源的协调发展是社会发展的原动力。经济发展离开能源的基础,那将是无源之水,无本之木。所以,经济和能源应该协调发展,社会才能稳步前进。发展低碳经济是利用先进的技术和有效的管理方法与手段,保护资源,保护环境,实现社会和经济的可持续化发展的必由之路;是我国经济发展方式转型,产业结构调整过程中必须完成的紧迫任务之一。世界产业结构的变动,必然影响到开放度不断加大的我国,正是在这样的背景下,我国的煤炭及其他矿产品的出口不断增长。在我国融人经济全球化的过程中,要注意在接受国际产业结构调整对我国经济发展有利影响的同时,要用低碳经济的发展战略模式,避免消极影响危及我国经济的长期、根本利益。应该在这个大前提下,对我国自然资源进行有计划的开发和提高自然资源的有效利用。实现可持续发展已经成为中国社会经济发展的一个重要基本方针,可持续发展不仅要强调对环境的保护,而且应包括如何解决在人口已经高度密集,人均资源相对匮乏,自然生态环境已经十分脆弱的条件下,如何实现经济的长期高速发展,同时又要保护环境的这样一个史无前例的社会实践问题。低碳经济和能源资源的协调发展就成了解决这一问题的必经之路。能源既是重要的必不可少的经济发展和社会生活的物质前提,又是现实的重要污染来源,解决好我国的能源可持续发展战略问题,是实现我国社会经济可持续发展的重要环节。     

开展产品认证,促进节能环保事业健康发展

在未来的几十年里,我国的能源需求将达到高峰,由此引发的能源供需矛盾也越来越突出.随着人们对因能源使用而导致的环境问题认识程度的加深,我国面临的环境压力也越来越大.为此,全面优化能源结构、不断提高能源效率,系统改造和更新落后的高耗能产品、设备,推广高效节能技术产品,制定产品的能源效率标准和实施节能产品认证制度是经济可持续发展、保护环境、保障能源供应安全的需要.本文对我国节能产品认证制度的实施情况做了简单介绍.     

开展产品认证,促进节能环保事业健康发展

在未来的几十年里,我国的能源需求将达到高峰,由此引发的能源供需矛盾也越来越突出.随着人们对因能源使用而导致的环境问题认识程度的加深,我国面临的环境压力也越来越大.为此,全面优化能源结构、不断提高能源效率,系统改造和更新落后的高耗能产品、设备,推广高效节能技术产品,制定产品的能源效率标准和实施节能产品认证制度是经济可持续发展、保护环境、保障能源供应安全的需要.本文对我国节能产品认证制度的实施情况做了简单介绍.     

论湘西地区非粮柴油能源植物资源的开发

非粮柴油能源植物资源开发是生物柴油能源植物相关产业开发热点,是我国未来能源发展趋势.基于前期调查数据资料,本文阐述了湘西地区非粮柴油能源植物资源在生物质能、食品、药物、饲料和其他工业用品开发等10种可能的开发途径,并提出在思想层面、战略层面、技术层面上进行有关研究和开发的建议.     

推进可持续生产体系：封闭循环

快速增长的印度建筑行业是该国ＣＯ２排放的单一最大贡献者，这个行业的特征是常用建筑材料日益短缺，和各种技术利用资源和能源的效率低，已经设计了一种对策，以满足日益增长的建筑材料需求，同时限制排放，为了增加墙体材料的供应，已经确定了一些可持续生产体系。介绍了ＴＡＲＡＧＲＡＭ的一项生态设计实例研究，该中心的生产体系封闭了各种回路，以产生和可持续利用水、生物量和能源资源。     

Is Chinese trade policy motivated by environmental concerns?

This paper analyses whether China's export VAT rebates and export taxes are driven by environmental concerns. Since China struggles to enforce environmental regulation, trade policy can be used as a second-best environmental policy. In a general equilibrium model it is possible to show that the second-best export tax increases in a product's pollution intensity. The empirical analysis investigates whether the export tax equivalent of partial VAT rebates and export taxes are higher for products which are more pollution intensive along several dimensions. The results indicate that the VAT rebate rates are set in a way that discourages exports of water pollution intensive, SO₂ intensive and energy intensive products from 2007 on. Moreover, the conservation of natural resources such as minerals, metals, wood products and precious stones seems to be a key determinant of China's export VAT rebate rates. There is little evidence that export taxes are motivated by environmental concerns.     

Re-evaluating the role of energy efficiency standards: A behavioral economics approach

The economic models that prescribe Pigovian taxation as the first-best means of reducing energy-related externalities are typically based on the neoclassical model of rational consumer choice. Yet, consumer behavior in markets for energy-using durables is generally thought to be far from efficient, giving rise to the concept of the “energy-efficiency gap.” This paper presents a welfare analysis of energy policies that is based on a behavioral model of temptation and self-control, introduced by Gul and Pesendorfer 23 and 24. We find that, in the presence of temptation, (i) Pigovian taxes alone do not yield a first-best outcome, (ii) when viewed as substitutes, energy efficiency standards can dominate Pigovian taxes, and (iii) a policy combining standards with a Pigovian tax can yield higher social welfare than a Pigovian tax alone, implying that the two instruments should be viewed as complements rather than substitutes.     

Flattening the carbon extraction path in unilateral cost-effective action

Internalizing the global negative externality of carbon emissions requires the flattening of the extraction path of world fossil energy resources (=world carbon emissions). We consider governments with sign-unconstrained emission taxes at their disposal and seeking to prevent world emissions from exceeding some binding aggregate emission ceiling in the medium term. Such a ceiling policy can be carried out either in full cooperation or by a sub-global climate coalition. Unilateral action has to cope with carbon leakage and high costs, which makes a strong case for choosing a policy that implements the ceiling in a cost-effective way. In a two-country, two-period general equilibrium model with a non-renewable fossil-energy resource, we characterize the unilateral cost-effective ceiling policy and compare it with its fully cooperative counterpart. We show that with full cooperation there exists a cost-effective ceiling policy in which only first-period emissions are taxed at a rate that is uniform across countries. In contrast, the cost-effective ceiling policy of a sub-global climate coalition is characterized by emission regulation in both periods. The share of the total stock of energy resources owned by the sub-global climate coalition turns out to be a decisive determinant of the sign and magnitude of unilateral cost-effective taxes.     

Enforcement costs and the incentive to evade controls on production

Economists have long favored emission taxes as a method of controlling pollution. One reason for the widespread support of emission taxes has been the assumption that emission taxes would be easier to enforce than other policies. However, recent developments in the discussion of pollution control allow more specific comparisons of enforcement costs and yield the conclusion that there may exist at least one alternate regulatory scheme that would be easier to enforce than emission taxes.     

Effects of Carbon Taxes in an Economy with Prior Tax Distortions: An Intertemporal General Equilibrium Analysis

This paper analyzes the costs of carbon taxes in a model that recognizes interactions between this tax and pre-existing taxes. First we examine the extent to which costs of a U.S. carbon tax are reduced when its revenues finance cuts in income taxes. Such use of revenues significantly reduces, but does not eliminate, the overall policy costs. The positive overall costs reflect the carbon tax′s focus on intermediate inputs and its relatively narrow base in comparison with income taxes. We also examine the sensitivity of the carbon tax′s costs to the level of pre-existing taxes. For any given use of revenues, welfare costs rise significantly with pre-existing tax rates, indicating that models disregarding pre-existing taxes may substantially understate the costs of new environmental tax initiatives.     

Are energy efficiency standards justified?

This paper develops an analytical framework for comparing the welfare effects of energy efficiency standards and pricing policies for reducing gasoline, electricity, and nationwide carbon emissions. The model is parameterized with US data and includes key externalities in the energy/transportation sectors and possible underinvestment in energy efficiency due to “misperceptions” over energy savings. Even with large misperceptions, the extra welfare gains from complementing efficient pricing policies with energy efficiency standards are zero for reducing gasoline and 5 percent for reducing electricity. And when viewed as substitutes, these standards forgo 60 percent or more of the potential welfare gains from corresponding pricing policies. A combination of energy efficiency and emissions standards is more than three times as costly as carbon pricing when there is no misperception over energy savings, and even with large misperceptions, combining carbon pricing with gasoline/electricity taxes is better than combining it with energy efficiency standards.     

Strategic pollution control and capital tax competition

In an analytical model of symmetric countries with mobile capital and local or transboundary pollution we investigate whether competition in emissions taxes (or emissions caps) and capital taxes leads to efficient outcomes when governments act strategically. When they have capital taxes and emissions caps at their disposal, they refrain from taxing capital and set their caps inefficiently lax [efficient] for transboundary [local] pollution. When they have the option to tax capital and emissions, capital is subsidized [untaxed] and emissions taxes are inefficiently low [efficient] for transboundary [local] pollution. In case of transboundary pollution emissions caps are Pareto-superior to emissions taxes. That holds regardless of whether the environmental policy is applied as stand-alone policy or combined with capital tax competition.     

Tax evasion and optimal environmental taxes

This paper introduces a new argument to the debate about the role of environmental taxes in modern tax systems. Some environmental taxes, particularly taxes on gasoline or electricity, are more difficult to evade than taxes on labor or income. When the tax base is shifted in a revenue-neutral manner toward these environmental taxes, the result is a net reduction in the amount of tax evasion. Using a carbon tax as a motivating example, the “tax evasion effect” is shown to sharply reduce the welfare cost of controlling emissions. A simple computable general equilibrium model suggests that the impact of considering tax evasion can be large: costs are lowered by 28% in the United States, by 89% in China, and by 97% in India. In countries with high levels of pre-existing tax evasion, a carbon tax will pay for itself through improvements in the efficiency of the tax system.     

Redistribution and pollution taxes with non-linear Engel curves

This paper analyses optimal corrective taxation and optimal income redistribution. The Pigouvian pollution tax is higher if pollution damages disproportionally hurt the poor due to equity weighting of pollution damages. Moreover, under general utility functions, optimal pollution taxes should be set below the Pigouvian tax if the poor spend a disproportionate fraction of their income on polluting goods. However, if Engel curves are linear, optimal pollution taxes should follow the first-best rule for the Pigouvian corrective tax even if the government wants to redistribute income and the poor spend a disproportional part of their income on polluting goods. The often-used quasi-linear, CES and Stone-Geary utility functions all have linear Engel curves. If Engel curves are linear, and if pollution taxes are not optimised, Pareto-improving green tax reforms exist that move the pollution tax closer to the Pigouvian tax. Simulations demonstrate that optimal corrective taxes should be Pigouvian if the demand for polluting goods is derived from a LES demand system, but deviate from the Pigouvian taxes if demand for polluting goods demand is derived from a PIGLOG demand system.     

Pigou meets Mirrlees: On the irrelevance of tax distortions for the second-best Pigouvian tax

This paper extends the Mirrlees (1971) model of optimal income redistribution with optimal corrective taxes to internalize consumption externalities. Using general utility structures and exploring both linear and non-linear taxes, it is demonstrated that the optimal second-best tax on an externality-generating good should not be corrected for the marginal cost of public funds, since it equals one in the optimal tax system. In the optimum, distortions of income taxes are equal to marginal redistributional gains. If the government does not have access to a non-distortionary marginal source of finance, the marginal cost of public funds can be either larger or smaller than one depending on subjective preferences for income redistribution. The optimal second-best corrective tax is then either higher or lower than the Pigouvian level. The findings in this paper generalize and amend prior results based on representative-agent models, shedding new light on the weak double-dividend hypothesis, and on the welfare gains of recycling revenue from environmental taxes.